Research Article |
Corresponding author: Agnieszka Rewicz ( agnieszka.rewicz@biol.uni.lodz.pl ) Academic editor: Alexander Sennikov
© 2020 Agnieszka Rewicz, Jolanta Marciniuk, Paweł Marciniuk.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Rewicz A, Marciniuk J, Marciniuk P (2020) Achene micromorphology and its taxonomic significance in some species in Taraxacum sect. Palustria (Asteraceae). PhytoKeys 166: 1-28. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.166.54271
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The genus Taraxacum is one of the largest and taxonomically most complicated apomictic genera. Currently, it is considered to consist of over 2800 species placed within 60 sections. Due to the large number of species, and their uniform morphological design and plasticity of leaves, the identification of plants at the species level is challenging even for specialists. This problem significantly hinders the study of their properties and the rational use of these valuable medicinal and nutritional plants. This paper presents the results of research on the morphology and micromorphology of achenes of 28 Taraxacum species of sect. Palustria and for comparison one species per section of: Erythrosperma, Naevosa, Piesis, and Taraxacum. The achenes were measured with a stereoscopic microscope and a biometric program, and micromorphological studies were performed by scanning electron microscopy. It has been shown that traits associated with achene morphology and micromorphology have a high diagnostic value, allowing us to distinguish sections as well as species within the sect. Palustria. Based on the examined achene features, a dichotomous key for determining the studied species was constructed.
achene, micromorphology, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Taraxacum, taxonomy
The family Asteraceae is a large family of flowering plants with over 25,000 species and 1620 genera (
The identification problem resulting from high variability, among others, also applies to the relatively thoroughly investigated Taraxacum sections, including one of the most vulnerable sections ‒ Palustria ‒ to which this study is devoted.
Taraxacum sect. Palustria has about 160 described and confirmed species (
One technique that allows for the determination of new diagnostic features is SEM (scanning electron microscopy). SEM had already been used in the first half of the 20th century (
The application of SEM for micromorphologic evaluation in taxonomic research in the family Asteraceae seems to be promising (
It is important to develop a functional key for the genus Taraxacum, based on the largest possible number of features, including relatively stable fruit properties. Features associated with the morphology of leaves and inflorescences are highly variable (
The presented study aims to use micromorphological characters (based on scanning electron microscopy and biometrical traits) of achenes for the taxonomic identification and species delimitation in some species of the genus Taraxacum.
We analyzed achenes from 28 Taraxacum species, 24 of which belong to sect. Palustria and 4 species to four other sections included for comparison: Taraxacum bessarabicum of sect. Piesis, T. bellicum (in the sense of the description of T. prunicolor by
List of studied species of Taraxacum included in this study. N –latitude, E – longitude; abbreviations: the first capital letter from the genus and the three first letters from the species name; bold: species from outgroup sections.
Species | Abbreviation | Number of analyzed achenes | Locality | N / E | Habitat |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
T. ancoriferum Hudziok in Feddes Repert. 80: 333. 1969 | T. anc | 43 | Czuchów | 52°17', 22°44' | wet meadow |
T. balticum Dahlst. in Bot. Not. 1905: 162. 1905 | T. bal | 38 | Pyzdry | 52°09', 17°41' | salt meadow |
T. bavaricum Soest in Acta Bot. Neerl. 14: 21. 1965 | T. bav | 42 | Czuchów | 52°17', 22°44' | wet meadow |
T. bellicum (sect. Erythrosperma) Sonck in Memoranda Soc. Fauna Fl. Fenn. 59: 1. 1983 | T. bel | 51 | Nowogród | 53°13', 21°52' | psammophilous grassland |
T. belorussicum Val. N. Tikhom. in Novosti Sist. Vysš. Rast. 35: 207. 2003 | T. belo | 39 | Mścichy | 53°25', 22°30' | peat bogs in the Biebrza Valley |
T. bessarabicum (sect. Piesis) (Hornem.) Hand.-Mazz. in Monogr. Taraxacum: 26. 1907 | T. bes | 42 | Košice | 48°45', 21°15' | city lawn |
T. brandenburgicum Hudziok in Feddes Repert. 75: 131. 1967 | T. bra | 48 | Pyzdry | 52°09', 17°41' | salt meadow |
T. dentatum Kirschner & Štěpánek in Thaiszia 4: 156. 1994 | T. den | 50 | Czuchów | 52°17', 22°44' | wet meadow |
T. fascinans Kirschner, Mikoláš & Štěpánek in Preslia 69: 45. 1997 | T. fas | 42 | Bydgoszcz | 53°06', 18°07' | wet meadow |
T. gelertii (sect. Naevosa) M. P. Christ. in Rosenvinge & Warming, Bot. Iceland 3: 303. 1942 | T. gel | 51 | Władysławowo | 54°47', 18°24' | wet meadow |
T. hollandicum Soest in Ned. Kruidk. Arch. 52: 226. 1942 | T. hol | 47 | Kozłówek | 49°50', 21°40' | wet meadow |
T. linearisquameum (set. Taraxacum) Soest in Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wetensch., Ser. C, Biol. Med. Sci. 69: 471. 1966 | T. lin | 31 | Lipnica Wielka | 49°42', 20°43' | city lawn |
T. madidum Kirschner & Štěpánek in Thaiszia 4: 149. 1994 | T. mad | 30 | Krościenko | 49°25', 20°25' | calcareous fen |
T. mariae J. Marciniuk & P. Marciniuk in Phytotaxa 376 (5): 208. 2018 | T. mar | 33 | Modliborzyce | 50°45', 22°19' | wet meadow |
T. mendax Kirschner & Štěpánek in Folia Geobot. Phytotax. 20: 413. 1985 | T. men | 56 | Matulnik | 49°52', 22°06' | wet meadow |
T. paucilobum Hudziok in Feddes Repert. 72: 29. 1965 | T. pau | 41 | Krześlin | 52°13', 22°21' | wet meadow |
T. pauckertianum Hudziok in Feddes Repert. 80: 328. 1969 | T. pauc | 38 | Polanowo | 52°24', 17°55' | wet meadow |
T. polonicum Małecka & Soest in Acta Biol. Cracov., Ser. Bot. 15: 119. 1972 | T. pol | 48 | Wiślica | 50°21', 20°40' | wet meadow |
T. portentosum Kirschner & Štěpánek in Monogr. Taraxacum Sect. Palustria: 233. 1998 | T. por | 32 | Krześlin | 52°13', 22°21' | wet meadow |
T. skalinskanum Małecka & Soest in Acta Biol. Cracov., Ser. Bot. 15: 120. 1972 | T. ska | 52 | Modlniczka | 50°07', 19°50' | wet meadow |
T. subalpinum Hudziok in Feddes Repert. 72: 26. 1965 | T. sub | 38 | Pyzdry | 52°09', 17°41' | wet meadow |
T. subdolum Kirschner & Štěpánek in Preslia 64: 28. 1992 | T. subd | 41 | Czuchów | 52°17', 22°44' | wet meadow |
T. subpolonicum Kirschner & Štěpánek in Monogr. Taraxacum Sect. Palustria: 120. 1998 | T. subp | 34 | Wilczonek | 52°10', 22°02' | wet meadow |
T. telmatophilum Kirschner & Štěpánek in Preslia 58: 104. 1986 | T. tel | 51 | Gotówka | 50°10', 23°32' | calcareous fen |
T. trilobifolium Hudziok in Feddes Repert. 75: 134. 1967 | T. tri | 46 | Krześlin | 52°13', 22°21' | wet meadow |
T. udum Jord. in Mém. Acad. Roy. Sci. Lyon, Sect. Lett., ser. 2 1: 325. 1851 | T udu | 42 | Pomiechówek | 52°27', 20°43' | wet meadow |
T. vindobonense Soest in Acta Bot. Neerl. 14: 50. 1965 | T. vin | 48 | Krześlin | 52°09', 17°41' | wet meadow |
T. zajacii J. Marciniuk & P. Marciniuk in Ann. Bot. Fenn. 49: 388. 2012 | T. zaj | 53 | Harta | 49°51', 22°13' | wet meadow |
The length of spinules was chosen as the criterion for dividing the analyzed species into three types:
Type A) very short spinules with a free part length of 5 to 10 microns;
Type B) medium spinules with a free part length from 11 to 19 microns;
Type C) very long spinules with a free part length of 20 to 30 microns.
The terminology of ornamentation of achene body is based on
Micromorphological data were obtained by SEM (Phenom Pro X) at the Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Hydrobiology, University of Lodz (Poland). The achenes were sputter-coated with a 4 nm layer of gold. The achene surface ultrastructure 3D models were made using 3D Roughness Reconstruction software from the Phenom Suite. The digital images obtained by SEM were trimmed and arranged in plates using Corel Draw 2018.
The following basic characteristic features were calculated: arithmetic average (x), maximum and minimum values (max and min), standard deviation (SD), and coefficient of variation (CV). A cluster analysis (CA) on the shortest Euclidean distances according to Ward’s method was applied to determine the number of clusters between taxa. To differentiate between species, a K-means clustering analysis was conducted. The optimal number of K-groups was determined based on the results of agglomeration analysis.
The Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were conducted to check for a normal distribution of the data; both were not normal, and therefore, the Kruskal-Wallis test (for P ≤0.05) was used, as a nonparametric alternative to ANOVA (
The software packages STATISTICA PL. ver. 13.1 and MVSP 4.5 were used for all the mentioned numerical analyses (
The analysis of achene traits revealed various informative features useful for the identification of species within this section. The longest achenes occur in T. ancoriferum (4.42 mm) and T. hollandicum (4.30 mm), while the shortest achenes occur in T. bellicum (sect. Erythrosperma), T. linearisquameum (sect. Taraxacum), T. subalpinum, and T. portentosum (2.34 mm, 2.63 mm, 2.86 mm, and 2.93 mm, respectively). The widest achenes occur in T. hollandicum (1.14 mm), T. ancoriferum (1.11 mm), and T. fascinans (1.11 mm). The narrowest achenes were recorded for the following species: T. paucilobum (0.62 mm), T. bellicum (0.68 mm), and T. bavaricum (0.69 mm). The species with the longest cones were T. ancoriferum (1.63 mm), T. subdolum (1.39 mm), and T. madidum (1.34 mm). The smallest cones were found in T. gelertii (sect. Naevosa) and T. linearisquameum (0.65 mm and 0.68 mm, respectively). The highest index occurs in T. gelertii (5.14), T. udum (4.46), and T. hollandicum (4.34), while the shortest index occurs in T. ancoriferum (2.70) and T. bavaricum (2.65). The longest spinule was found in T. fascinans (0.35 mm), and the smallest spinule occurs in T. mendax (0.06 mm), T. bavaricum (0.05 mm), and T. skalinskanum (0.05 mm) (Table
A–E Ranges of variation of traits of Taraxacum taxa: boxes represent the 25th–75th percentiles, the upper and lower whiskers extend the minimum and maximum data point, the square inside the box indicates median, while colors indicate K-groups 1: gray, 2: red, 3: green, A achene length B achene width C spinule length D cone length E index.
The analysis of the coefficient of variation (CV) indicated that the most variable features were the spinules and the index of achenes. The variation of spinule traits ranged insignificantly from 13.84% (T. subpolonicum) to 97.33% (T. skalinskanum), and the index ranged from 7.73% (T. subpolonicum) to 18.66% (T. fascinans). The lowest variation of the coefficient of variation was observed in the length of achenes: it ranged from 2.05% (T. subpolonicum) to 12.25% (T. bellicum).
The similarity analysis using Euclidean’s distances showed three main clusters (Fig.
The elements of clusters received by K-means clustering analysis mostly correspond to clusters determined by similarity analysis. The first cluster contains mainly the species with the highest values for the length and the index. The second cluster encompasses species with the longest cone and the lowest index. The third cluster is a group of species with the shortest achenes (Fig.
Ordination diagrams of PCA of Taraxacum species based on five morphometric traits revealed that the first two principal components explained 80.66% of the total variance. The first component accounted for 36.41% of the total variance, and the second component accounted for 41.99% of the total variance (Fig.
Species of Taraxacum belonging to three K-groups; bold: species from the outgroup sections of Taraxacum.
Number of K-groups | ||
---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 |
T. bessarabicum | T. ancoriferum | T. bellicum |
T. gelertii | T. balticum | T. belorussicum |
T. hollandicum | T. bavaricum | T. dentatum |
T. mariae | T. brandenburgicum | T. fascinans |
T. subpolonicum | T. madidum | T. linearisquameum |
T. telmatophilum | T. pauckertianum | T. mendax |
T. udum | T. skalinskanum | T. paucilobum |
T. zajacii | T. subdolum | T. polonicum |
T. vindobonense | T. portentosum | |
T. subalpinum | ||
T. trilobifolium |
The ultrastructure of the achene body as revealed by SEM showed a significant variation among species.
The criterion for the division of the analyzed species was the length of spinules. On this basis, three types are distinguished. The first type A) contains species whose surface is covered by very short adjacent spinules tapering towards the end; with a free part of the length measuring from 5 to 10 microns (Suppl. materials
In type A), spinules in most species are arranged irregularly on the surface, the exception being the member of the Taraxacum section, T. linearisquameum, whose spinules are arranged in rows, evenly side by side. In nine species of type B) spinules are spaced apart so as not to overlap; only in three species (T. trilobifolium, T. udum, T. zajacii) there was a clear adhesion and overlap of these structures. Here also two species are notable for spinules arranged evenly in rows in one line (T. vindobonense, T. belorussicum). In type C), spinules are irregular only in T. bessarabicum (sect. Piesis) and protrude from the surface, and in other species spinules clearly adhere to the surface and overlap.
1 | Large achenes 3.75–5.55 mm with a long cone 1.2–2.0 mm | T. ancoriferum |
1* | Achenes smaller up to 3.75 mm or a shorter cone | 2 |
2 | Achenes with a large index, on average more than 4.35 mm | 3 |
2* | Achenes with a smaller index | 4 |
3 | Large achenes 3.85–4.7 mm, very short tight spinules | T. hollandicum |
3* | Small achenes 3.25–4.1 mm, medium tight spinules | T. udum |
4 | Long and numerous spinules, on average above 0.25 mm | 5 |
4* | Spinules shorter and not numerous | 8 |
5 | Broad achenes 0.9–1.3 mm | T. fascinans |
6* | Narrower achenes | 7 |
7 | Large achenes 3.0–3.7 mm | T. subpolonicum |
7* | Small achenes | T. subalpinum |
8 | Few and very short spinules, below 0.1 mm | 9 |
8* | Longer and more numerous spinules | 12 |
9 | Narrow achenes, on average 0.62 mm, with a short cone (0.85 mm on average) | T. paucilobum |
9* | Wider achenes with a longer cone | 10 |
10 | Very short tight spinules | T. bavaricum |
10* | Medium tight spines | 11 |
11 | Cone on average 0.95 mm (0.73–1.18) | T. mendax |
11* | Cone on average 1.2 mm (0.88–1.52) | T. skalinskanum |
12 | Very short tight spinules | 13 |
12* | Medium spinules | 15 |
12** | Long tight spinules | 20 |
13 | Small achenes, on average 2.65 mm | T. dentatum |
13* | Achenes on average above 3.5 mm | 14 |
14 | Cone on average 1.4 mm, spinules on average 0.2 mm | T. subdolum |
14* | Cone on average 1.2 mm, spinules on average 0.11 mm | T. balticum |
15 | Spinules arranged in one line | 16 |
15* | Spinules irregularly arranged | 17 |
16 | Broad achenes, on average 1.1 mm | T. vindobonense |
16* | Achenes narrower, on average 0.85 mm | T. belorussicum |
17 | Cone on average 1.35 mm | T. madidum |
17* | Shorter cone, on average approx. 1.0 mm | 18 |
18 | Broad achenes, on average 1.0 mm | T. zajacii |
18* | Narrow achenes, on average less than 0.8 mm | 19 |
19 | Achenes on average 3.05 mm long with an index of 3.55 | T. trilobifolium |
19* | Achenes on average 2.9 mm long with an index of 3.2 | T. portentosum |
20 | Index less than 3 mm | 21 |
20* | Index more than 3.5 mm | 22 |
21 | Achenes 3.45 mm long, 0.1 mm wide | T. brandenburgicum |
21* | Achenes on average 3.25 mm long, 0.85 mm wide | T. pauckertianum |
22 | Achenes on average 3.05 mm long, short spinules (on average 0.12 mm) | T. polonicum |
22* | Achenes above 3.5 mm long, spinules above 0.2 mm | 23 |
23 | Achenes on average 3.85 mm long, 1.1 mm wide | T. mariae |
23* | Achenes on average 3.6 mm long, 0.95 mm wide | T. telmatophilum |
Data provided in the literature on taxonomic studies of Taraxacum sect. Palustria concentrating on achene morphology has mainly provided accurate measurements as in the section monograph (
Comparing our research with available literature data is very difficult because of different approaches used by other authors (Table
Comparison of previously published biometric data of achenes of the studied taxa with the outcomes of our research.
Literature data | This study results | Literature data | This study results | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | the achene length (with cone) mm | the cone length | ||||||||||||
|
|
|
Average | Min | Max |
|
Kirsch. & Štěp. 1998 |
|
|
Average | Min | Max | ||
T. ancoriferum | (4.5-)4.7–5.2(-5.5) | (4.5-)4.7–5.2(-5.5) | 5.0–5.4 | 4.42/6.05 | 3.77 | 5.56 | 1.2–1.5 | 1.2–1.5 | 1.1–1.4 | 1.63 | 1.22 | 2.01 | ||
T. balticum | 4.5–5.2(-6.0) | 3.55/4.74 | 3.23 | 3.98 | (0.9-)1.1–1.2(-1.5) | 1.19 | 0.93 | 1.37 | ||||||
T. bavaricum | 4.8–5.3 | 4.8–5.3 | 4.5 | 3.17/4.35 | 2.29 | 3.48 | 1.6–2.0 | 1.6–2.0 | 0.9 | 1.18 | 0.94 | 1.40 | ||
T. belorussicum | 3.06/4.07 | 2.78 | 3.43 | 1.01 | 0.81 | 1.32 | ||||||||
T. brandenburgicum | 3.8–4.2(-5.0) | 3.44/4.65 | 2.89 | 4.04 | 0.8–1.0 | 1.21 | 0.96 | 1.63 | ||||||
T. dentatum | (2.9-)3.3–3.8 | (2.9-)3.3–3.8 | 2.65/3.42 | 2.25 | 3.21 | 0.5–0.7 | 0.5–0.7(-0.8) | 0.77 | 0.52 | 1.05 | ||||
T. fascinans | 3.5–4.2 | 3.12/3.97 | 2.84 | 3.47 | 0.7–1.0 | 0.85 | 0.69 | 1.01 | ||||||
T. hollandicum | (4.0-)4.3–4.6(-5.0) | 4.3–4.6 | 4.30/5.31 | 3.85 | 4.70 | 0.5–0.7(-0.9) | 0.5–0.7(-0.9) | 1.01 | 0.83 | 1.35 | ||||
T. madidum | 4.0–4.4 | 4.0–4.4 | 3.78/5.12 | 3.64 | 4.14 | (0.8-)0.9–1.0(-1.1) | (0.8-)0.9–1.0(-1.1) | 1.34 | 1.09 | 1.53 | ||||
T. mariae | 3.87 | 3.18 | 4.36 | 1.03 | 0.76 | 1.32 | ||||||||
T. mendax | (3.8-)4.0–4.2(-4.3) | 3.34/4.32 | 3.02 | 3.56 | (0.8-)0.9–1.1 | 0.98 | 0.73 | 1.18 | ||||||
T. paucilobum | 4.0–4.5 | 4.0–4.5 | 3.19/4.03 | 2.91 | 3.37 | (0.7-)0.8–0.9 | (0.7-)0.8–0.9 | 0.84 | 0.70 | 1.01 | ||||
T. pauckertianum | 3.8–4.1 | 3.8–4.1 | 4.0–4.7 | 3.24/4.35 | 2.80 | 3.61 | (0.8-)0.9–1.0 | 0.8-)0.9–1.0 | 0.5–0.9 | 1.11 | 0.92 | 1.45 | ||
T. polonicum | 3.6–4.5 | 3.05/3.92 | 2.80 | 3.30 | 0.7–0.9 | 0.87 | 0.69 | 1.01 | ||||||
T. portentosum | 4.1–4.5(-4.8) | 2.93/3.82 | 2.71 | 3.18 | 0.9–1.2 | 0.91 | 0.80 | 1.06 | ||||||
T. skalinskanum | 4.8–5.2 | 3.53/4.74 | 3.18 | 3.88 | 1.2–1.7 | 1.21 | 0.88 | 1.52 | ||||||
T. subalpinum | 3.7–4.2 | 3.7–4.2 | 2.86/3.72 | 2.65 | 3.02 | 0.8–1.0 | 0.8–0.9 | 0.86 | 0.70 | 1.02 | ||||
T. subdolum | 4.2–4.4 | 3.53/4.92 | 3.15 | 3.97 | 1.0–1.4 | 1.39 | 1.11 | 1.63 | ||||||
T. subpolonicum | 3.5–4.0 | 3.53/4.47 | 3.01 | 3.70 | 0.6–0.8 | 0.94 | 0.80 | 1.08 | ||||||
T. telmatophilum | 4.2–4.5 | 3.59/4.56 | 3.02 | 3.87 | 0.9–1.0 | 0.97 | 0.75 | 1.13 | ||||||
T. trilobifolium | (4.1-)4.2–4.9(-5.1) | (4.1-)4.2–4.9(-5.1) | 3.8–4.3 | 3.07/3.94 | 2.81 | 3.43 | (0.7-)0.8–1.1(-1.2) | (0.7-)0.8–1.1(-1.2) | 0.7–1.0 | 0.87 | 0.70 | 1.24 | ||
T. udum | (4.0-)4.4–4.7(-5.0) | (4.1-)4.4–4.7(-5.1) | 3.63/4.45 | 3.26 | 4.09 | 0.5–0.7(-0.9) | 0.5–0.9 | 0.82 | 0.62 | 1.08 | ||||
T. vindobonense | (3.8-)4.0–4.3(-5.0) | (3.8-)4.0–4.3(5.0) | 3.68/4.94 | 3.26 | 3.99 | 0.7–0.9(-1.0) | 0.7–0.9(-1.0) | 1.26 | 1.04 | 1.54 | ||||
T. zajacii | 3.50 | 3.00 | 3.88 | 1.0 | 0.78 | 1.18 |
The micromorphology analysis of achenes has allowed us to distinguish three main types that do not quite delimit Taraxacum sect. Palustria from other sections. Taraxacum gelertii (sect. Naevosa) and T. bellicum (sect. Erythrosperma) have the same type of ornamentation as some species from the section Palustria. Our finding is confirmed by previous studies (
Taraxacum sect. Palustria is a relatively large taxonomic unit with still unknown intra-group relationships. Section monographs (
Achene morphology and micromorphology of Taraxacum provide useful diagnostic features. The key presented here may be a useful auxiliary tool (in conjunction with the morphological features of leaves and inflorescences) for the determination of species of Taraxacum sect. Palustria occurring in Poland.
This work was supported by Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities (grant number No. 78/20/B) and partly from the University of Lodz statutory funds.
Figure S1
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. balticum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S2
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. bavaricum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S3
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. dentatum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S4
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. gelertii B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture, G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S5
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. hollandicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S6
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. linearisquameum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S7
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. paucilobum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S8
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. subdolum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S9
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. subpolonicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S10
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. ancoriferum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S11
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. bellicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S12
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. belorussicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S13
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. fascinans B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S14
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. madidum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S15
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. mendax B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S16
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. portentosum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S17
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. skalinskanum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S18
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. subalpinum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S19
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. trilobifolium B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S20
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. udum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S21
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. vindobonense B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S22
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. zajacii B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S23
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. bessarabicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S24
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. brandenburgicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S25
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. mariae B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture, G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S26
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. pauckertianum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G e surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S27
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. polonicum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Figure S28
Data type: image
Explanation note: A general view of achene of T. telmatophilum B–D achene micromorphology E, F sculpture G surface 3D ultrastructure.
Table S1
Data type: image
Explanation note: A–E Biometric characteristics of Taraxacum species: x – arithmetic means, min. max – minimum, maximum, CV – variation coefficients, SD–standard deviation.