We recorded 406 taxa (400 species, three varieties and three hybrids) from 277 genera and 106 families of vascular plants in the nine habitats of SW, including 24 species of ferns and lycophytes, three species of gymnosperms (Cycas edentata, Gnetum cuspidatum and G. gnemon), with 257 being dicotyledons, and 122 monocotyledons (Table 1). This represents 19% of 2168 species recorded growing in wetlands of Peninsular Malaysia (Said and Zakaria 1992) and also illustrates the fact that SW flora is relatively species rich. The most speciose family recorded from SW is Orchidaceae (56 species/28 genera), followed by Rubiaceae (24 species/20 genera) and Fabaceae (22 species/17 genera) (Fig. 3), while there are 43 families represented only by a single species e.g., Amaryllidaceae, Commelinaceae, Cycadaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Flagellariaceae and Pittosporaceae (see Appendix 1 for other families). Among the genera that contribute most to the total number of species are Dendrobium (11 species), Bulbophyllum and Syzygium with 10 species, while Bruguiera, Cyperus and Sonneratia have five species each. In terms of the life forms (Table 2), trees have the highest percentage (39.7%) followed by terrestrial herbs and epiphytes with 16.5% and 13.3% of the taxa, respectively. Apart from the trees, the herbaceous species which can be terrestrial, epiphytic or climbing, are represented by 27.8% of the species, which implies that trees and herbaceous flora are the most important components of the SW areas.

Figure 3. 

The 12 largest families and genera of the vascular plants of Setiu Wetlands.

The Orchidaceae (Fig. 4) are well represented in SW, representing 23% of 245 orchid species recently reported in Terengganu (Besi et al. 2019). Thus, to date, there are 56 species of orchids found in SW from which 14 species were recorded by Siti Fatimah et al. (2015) and 42 represent new records in SW, mostly being recent collections by Dome Nikong. The highest number of orchid species in SW, as expected, are in the widespread genera Bulbophyllum and Dendrobium, similar to the results of Besi et al. (2019) in Tasik Kenyir logging sites. Both genera are found to be most abundant epiphytic orchids growing in disturbed and logged forests in which the weather and microclimate are favourable for growth and reproductive processes. However, orchid density is due in part to the severity of the disturbance in which highly disturbed logging sites harbour lower density than somewhat disturbed sites (Besi et al. 2019). Among the species recorded in SW, there are some that are exceptional. The orchid diversity in SW is enriched with the sighting of the uncommon Papilionanthe hookeriana that is confined to the freshwater swamp area of Tasik Berombak in SW. It usually coexists with shrubs and tall grasses for support (Pridgeon et al. 2014). On the other hand, the discovery of Vanilla griffithii in its uncharacteristic habitat of the BRIS forest signified its capability to thrive in xeric environment and supported its local genus distribution pattern suggested by Mohd Raffi et al. (2014) which was best described as constantly sparse, widespread and in many habitats.

Figure 4. 

A selection of Orchidaceae species from Setiu Wetlands. A Ania penangiana B Thrixspermum amplexicaule C Pinalia atrovinosa D Papilionanthe hookeriana E Phalaenopsis pulcherrima F Cymbidium finlaysonianum G Grammatophyllum speciosum H Strongyleria pannea I Callostylis pulchella J Bromheadia finlaysoniana K Vanilla griffithii L Arachnis flos-aeris M Dendrobium secundum N Bulbophyllum trigonopus O Dendrolirium lasiopetalum.

As for the mangroves, there are about 33 exclusive mangrove species including three hybrids i.e. Sonneratia × hainanensis, Bruguiera × rhynchopetala, Rhizophora × annamalayana and four individuals of Bruguiera hainesii located at Pulau Layat (Razali et al. 2017). However, the mangroves in SW and on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, in general, are not so diverse and widely distributed as compared to the west coast because the former are exposed to the lagoons and rivers (Latiff and Faridah-Hanum 2014), and are also threatened by strong waves during monsoon months as well as anthropogenic activities e.g., many mangroves in SW had been uprooted to make way for aquaculture, shrimp ponds and constructions of infrastructures.

The relatively species rich profile of SW reflects on the interconnected forest types in SW which consists of different plant communities (Fig. 5) including beach, mangroves, peat swamp and freshwater swamp plants. Beach vegetation includes Casuarinaceae and Convolvulaceae and mixed mangroves plants such as the families Avicenniaceae, Lythraceae and Rhizophoraceae. Peat swamp plants can be found behind the mangrove belt and further inland, Melaleuca swamp forest dominates the waterlogged area associated with BRIS soil (Jamilah et al. 2015). On the other hand, the heath-like dune landscape established on the ridge areas of Setiu coast is characterised by stunted and low stature vegetation growing in a clumping pattern (Jamilah et al. 2014).The vegetation on the sandy and dry ridge is dominated by Myrtaceae family (Melaleuca cajuputi, Baeckea frutescens, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa and Syzygium spp.). Woody epiphytic shrubs (e.g., Ficus deltoidea) and herbaceous species such as orchids are adapted to grow underneath the clump on BRIS soil dune landscape (Jamilah et al. 2014). However, the natural ecosystem on BRIS soil ridge and swamps is becoming scarce and smaller in coverage due to various threats faced by the coastal ecosystem of SW. It has become more scattered and fragmented, resulting in difficulty in finding an area that could be a good representative of BRIS soil flora. Fragmentation and degradation also expose this natural ecosystem to the invasion of exotic invasive alien species, such as Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis and their hybrids (Jamilah et al. 2014). It is predicted that without legal protection and authority commitment to conserve BRIS soil natural vegetation, it will soon be replaced by these alien species, particularly Acacia spp. Although the gazettement of BRIS soil habitat is still underway, land conversion in BRIS is rampant and to prevent further land uses, ecotourism activity is recommended. Therefore, the hope is that in the near future, BRIS soil habitat would be included in the next phases of State Park gazettement which will likely have a significant effect in ensuring the conservation of this unique habitat.

Figure 5. 

Different plant communities in Setiu Wetlands. A Mangrove plants B Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) population C Ceriops zippeliana D Pandanus tectorius E Ant plant, Hydnophytum formicarum attached to Bruguiera hainesii F Nepenthes ampullaria G Hoya coronaria H Ploiarium alternifolia.

As for the wetland or swamp, a rainfed swamp with a water table is highest during the monsoon months. The swamp is dominated by Melaleuca cajuputi trees with larger diameter of M. cajuputi trees relative to trees growing on the drier ridge of BRIS soil, as it grows better in waterlogged conditions as compared to dry sites (Suzuki 1999). This Melaleuca swamp harbours carnivorous species of pitcher plants (Nepenthes spp.), sundews (Drosera burmannii in particular) and Utricularia bifida which are adapted to freshwater swamp. The hydrological contribution of patches of Melaleuca swamp as a seasonal wetland is worth exploring and the wetlands may provide a critical ecosystem service of mitigating floods, particularly in monsoon months in Terengganu (Jamilah et al. 2015). In addition, SW also harbours a large freshwater lake, locally known as Tasik Berombak. The water is contributed by rain and a few small river tributaries (Sathiamurthy 2015) and comprises BRIS soil with heath-like vegetation on its ridge, but is less rich than natural BRIS ecosystem. The lake is invaded by thick bush of Hanguana malayana and other aquatic and semi aquatic non vascular plants.

The high diversity of wild orchids and other potentially useful plant species on coastal habitat of SW is indeed a natural capital for SW State Park and furthermore, the habitat supports an option value, which could be tapped in the future as outlined in Total Economic Value (TEV) (Costanza et al. 1997). The biodiversity resources in SW can be managed sustainably to support the local community green economy as an alternative to unsustainable economic activities such as sand mining. The SW State Park will also be crucial to protect the critically endangered Painted Terrapin (Batagur borneoensis (Schlegel & Muller, 1844)) and to serve as a refuge for some 29 mammals, 161 birds and 36 reptiles and amphibians (WWF-Malaysia). Furthermore, it is also classified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by Birdlife International.

Figure 6. 

Number of various wild flora species users according to villages.

Eight species have been classified as threatened species including one Critically Endangered (CR), Bruguiera hainesii, two Endangered (EN), Anisoptera marginata and Pterocarpus indicus, and five Vulnerable (VU) (Avicennia rumphiana, Halophila beccarii, Intsia bijuga, Ternstroemia wallichiana and Vatica pauciflora). The Critically Endangered, B. hainesii is only found in several localities in Southeast Asia including SW, and the lower estimates of mature individuals probably due to the low rates of propagation and germination (Polidoro et al. 2010). However, recent molecular analyses revealed that B. hainesii did not merit recognition of species as it has no unique haplotype/allele of its own but instead shared nuclear allele with B. cylindrica and B. gymnorhiza, and thus indicating the hybrid origin of B. hainesii (Ono et al. 2016). Five species partially met the classification thresholds under the threatened species category and therefore were listed as Near Threatened i.e. Cycas edentata, Myristica lowiana, Olax scandens, Phoenix paludosa, Sonneratia ovata, while 155 species are regarded either as Least Concern (LC) or Data Deficient (DD). However, about half of the vascular plants (59%) occurring in SW have not been assessed and categorised under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

For the Malaysia Plant Red List, two species have been classified as threatened species, namely Anisoptera marginata (EN) and Anodendron candolleanum (VU). There were nine species listed as Near Threatened i.e. Cycas edentata, Cerbera odollam, Cerbera manghas, Vatica pauciflora, Drosera burmannii, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Horsfieldia irya, Myristica lowiana, Olax scandens while 32 species were listed as Least Concern (LC). The other 369 species have not been assessed and categorised under the Malaysia Plant Red List but are available in MyBIS. On the other hand, there were 55 species (13%) listed under CITES of which 49 species were from Orchidaceae, three from Nepenthaceae, two from Ebenaceae and one from Cycadaceae. Almost all the orchids recorded (89%) in SW are listed in CITES. About 30,000 plant species have been listed and protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade of which more than half of the species assessed are orchids and cacti.

We found that in the SW, the local households’ utilisation mainly focused on three species, namely Nypa fruticans (nypa), Lepironia articulata (Blue-grey sedge) and Pandanus tectorius (Sea Pandan, Sea screwpine). Figure 6 shows the number of flora user households based on the species utilised in each village. Nypa fruticans records the highest number of users with 34 households from five out of seven villages. Lepironia articulata is a close second, with recorded utilisation in 28 households in five villages as well. Meanwhile P. tectorius is the least utilised of the three species with only nine user households in total from four villages. The wide use of N. fruticans coincides with the highest variety of products that can be made using its various plant parts (see Fig. 7). The nypa palm is the most versatile wild plant among the three as different parts of the plant are used to make different kinds of products. For example, the young leaves are used to make tobacco wrappers, its dried midrib is weaved into baskets, while mature fronds with leaves are used to make roof-thatch. The midribs of the nypa, which are unsuitable for weaving lekar baskets, are used to make brooms. Due to this, nypa is the most preferred plant species used in SW. Its utilisation is well documented in Malaysia (see Latiff 2009; Tsuji et al. 2011). It is not only an important wild resource for the Malays but also for indigenous tribes such as the Mah Meri who use nypa leaves to produce decorative items for spirit huts, altars, homes and dancers (Baba et al. 2013).

Figure 7. 

Number of producers based on type of products made from wild flora.

As for Lepironia articulata, although it can be used to make similar types of products as those made using Pandanus tectorius, i.e. mats and bags, its livelihood-based utilisation in Malaysia appears less recorded compared to the latter. Instead, there appears to be more documentation on its utilisation in grey water treatment (see Sim et al. 2008; Wurochekke et al. 2014). However, its utilisation is significant for the users in SW, as it supplemented up to 45% of their monthly household income and represents a strong cultural link to the local tradition for the users who are mostly exclusive (not using other flora resource) users of this resource. The 11 users from SW produced mats, six users made sacks, while 10 users made accessories’ items such as hats and bags. Our findings suggest that current utilisation is at a sustainable level thanks to the user’s knowledge about the ecology of these plants. Its use therefore poses no threat to the integrity of the state park. According to MacDonald (2009), L. articulata is listed among eight major species that are commonly used for weaving activities by the Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) (Brink and Escobin 2003) due to their high suitability as a raw material for weaving activities, in particular their toughness, plasticity, sustainable strength and impermeability after being dried (Truyen et al. 2014).

The utilisation of L. articulata has been documented in other countries like Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand and China where this plant is used to make handicraft or household materials such as bags, mats, baskets, and hats (Domyos and Te-Chato 2013; Truyen et al. 2014). Whereas P. tectorius is only used to make one type of product, i.e. mats by nine users in SW, although other types of handicrafts used to be made in the past. Indeed, while pandan mats are produced in various parts of Malaysia (Ismail and Nawawi 2011; Baba et al. 2013) the quality of pandan mats produced by Terengganu weavers is of excellent quality (Ismail and Nawawi 2013). Therefore, it is highly probable that the weavers in SW could also produce a variety of products (Fig. 8), just as the weavers of Mah Meri tribe who are well known for producing varied, exquisite handicrafts such as purses, pouches, mats and baskets in Pulau Carey, Selangor (Baba et al. 2013). However, there needs to be a steady market demand that guarantees a good income stream, which is provided to the Mah Meri weavers by the Gerai OA, an NGO that helps market their products through fairs and online marketing.

Figure 8. 

Utilisation of Lepironia articulata (A1–3), Pandanus tectorius (B1–3), and Nypa fruticans (C1–3ii) in Setiu Wetlands. From left to right 1 Harvesting 2 Part used 3 Finished products.