The medicinal plants of Myanmar

Robert A. DeFilipps; Gary A. Krupnick

doi:10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380

Monograph

The medicinal plants of Myanmar

Robert A. DeFilipps^‡†, Gary A. Krupnick^§

‡ Unaffiliated, Washington, United States of America

§ National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, United States of America

† Deceased author

Corresponding author: Gary A. Krupnick ( krupnick@si.edu )

Academic editor: Hugo de Boer

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Citation: DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA (2018) The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys 102: 1-341. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.102.24380

Abstract

A comprehensive compilation is provided of the medicinal plants of the Southeast Asian country of Myanmar (formerly Burma). This contribution, containing 123 families, 367 genera, and 472 species, was compiled from earlier treatments, monographs, books, and pamphlets, with some medicinal uses and preparations translated from Burmese to English. The entry for each species includes the Latin binomial, author(s), common Myanmar and English names, range, medicinal uses and preparations, and additional notes. Of the 472 species, 63 or 13% of them have been assessed for conservation status and are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2017). Two species are listed as Extinct in the Wild, four as Threatened (two Endangered, two Vulnerable), two as Near Threatened, 48 Least Concerned, and seven Data Deficient. Botanic gardens worldwide hold 444 species (94%) within their living collections, while 28 species (6%) are not found any botanic garden. Preserving the traditional knowledge of Myanmar healers contributes to Target 13 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.

Keywords

Myanmar, medicinal plants, traditional knowledge, ethnobotany, checklist, conservation

Introduction

In many parts of the world traditional knowledge and biodiversity still play an import role in health care, culture, religion, food security, environment, and sustainable development. Moreover, many widely used plant-based medicines are derived from traditional knowledge. Preserving, protecting, and promoting (if scientifically supported) traditional knowledge is of key importance. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) calls for the sustainable and equitable use of plant diversity (CBD 2002). GSPC’s Target 13 aims for an increase in indigenous and local knowledge innovations and practices associated with plant resources to support customary use, sustainable livelihoods, local food security, and health care. It is with this aim that we compiled a list of plant species and their medicinal uses in Myanmar based on published accounts. The information contained in this compilation comes from popular knowledge and was not scientifically tested in terms of the efficacy of the uses of the plants listed.

History of published accounts of Myanmar medicinal plants

Some of the earliest literature concerning the medicinal plants of Myanmar includes:

• Mason F (1850) The Natural Productions of Burma; or, Notes on the Fauna, Flora, and Minerals of the Tenasserim Provinces and the Burman empire. Moulmain.

• Lace JH, Roger A (1922) List of Trees, Shrubs, and Principal Climbers, etc., recorded from Burma. Rangoon.

• Rodger A (1951) A Handbook of the Forest Products of Burma. Rangoon.

• Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Indigenous System of Medicine (1951) Rangoon.

• Sawyer AM, Daw Nyun (1955) Classified List of the Plants of Burma. Rangoon.

• Hundley HG, U Chit Ko Ko (1961) Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Principle Climbers, etc. Rangoon.

In 1948, when the Union of Burma first gained its independence from the United Kingdom, the first Burmese government began to build a pharmaceutical factory, the Burma Pharmaceutical Industry (B.P.I.). B.P.I. was “large enough to cover the production of all essential medicines” for the population. This factory officially opened in 1958. Initially they had to depend almost entirely on imported raw materials. However, in 1955 the B.P.I. Raw Material Project was set up with the objective of providing as much of the raw material as possible from indigenous sources.

In 1957, Arnold Nordal was appointed as a United Nations advisor to assist the B.P.I. Raw Material Project with its work. From 1957 to 1961, Nordal studied the possible utilization of the medicinal plants in the Myanmar flora. For his study, Nordal contacted those he considered the most important representatives of the indigenous system of medicine. These included Buddhist monks, medicine men, and drug traders. Books and written sources were also used during his research resulting in the compilation of his 1963 publication, The Medicinal Plants and Crude Drugs of Burma. In the course of his work, he also built a herbarium of these medicinal plants, created a collection of the corresponding crude drugs, and collected as much information as possible on the medicinal tradition connected with the plants.

Subsequent work includes the following:

• Mya Bwin D, Sein Gwan U (1967) Burmese Indigenous Medicinal Plants. Burma Medicinal Research Institute, Rangoon.

• Perry LM (1980) Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia: Attributed Properties and Uses. 620 pp. The MIT Press, Cambridge and London.

• Agricultural Corporation (1980) Burmese Medicinal Plants. 501 pp. Rangoon: Agricultural Corporation. (In Burmese).

• Department of Traditional Medicine (No date [199-]) Medicinal Plants of Myanmar. Monograph. Ministry of Health, Myanmar. Accessed from http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/m/abstract/Js20298en/.

• Forest Department (1999) Medicinal Plants of Popa Mountain Park. 18 pp. Yangon, Myanmar: Ministry of Forestry.

• Kress WJ, DeFilipps RA, Farr E, Daw Yin Yin Kyi (2003) A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar. National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC.

• Thein Swe, Sein Win (2005) Herbal Gardens and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Myanmar. 5 pp. World Health Organization. Regional Office for South-East Asia. Pyongyang, DPR Korea.

• Tun, U Kyaw, U Pe Than et al. (Update 2006) Myanmar Medicinal Plant Database.

The Ministry of Health in Myanmar established the Department of Traditional Medicine in 1989, and it was upgraded and reorganized in 1998 (Thein Swe and Sein Win 2005).

Traditional medicine is widely practiced in Myanmar by the majority of the population either as an alternate or as a supplement to modern medicine (Thein Swe and Sein Win 2005). The social groups and traditional communities that have generated the knowledge of traditional medicine in Myanmar include Buddhist monks, sesayas (local doctors), ambulating medicine men, traders in the local drug bazaars, ambulating drug traders, and professional drug collectors (Nordal 1963). Old Burmese scriptures that contain medical traditions and health problems in addition to religious matters are written in a Burmese alphabet and language than can only be translated with special training. Buddhist monks have translated these scriptures, often written on palm leaves (Corypha umbraculifera L.) or on bamboo covered with the sap of the black-varnish tree (Melanorrhoea usitata Wall.), into ordinary Burmese and English (Nordal 1963). Sesayas are practitioners of local medical traditions whose knowledge has been handed down through their ancestors. Sesayas and their helpers prepare medicines in laboratories in their own homes. Ambulating medicine men are free lancers that travel from place to place accompanied by an apprentice. Drug traders of the local open-air bazaars are often prepared to share knowledge about the properties of their goods. Ambulating drug traders are mostly Ghurkas (people originating from Tibet) who would spread their products in the streets for display. Professional drug collectors make their living collecting crude drugs for the drug bazaars and for the sesayas, and they often have extensive and reliable knowledge of the medicinal local flora (Nordal 1963).

History and knowledge of the Myanmar flora

Botanical exploration of the Southeast Asian country of Myanmar (formerly Burma), which spans both tropical and subtropical biomes, began in the 1880s when the country was under the rule of the British (Kress et al. 2003). The botanical study of the British colonial system, including India and parts of Asia, resulted in partial plant lists of Myanmar such as Kurz’s The Forest Flora of British Burma (1877) and Hooker’s Flora of the British India (1894). Botanical investigations of the region sharply decreased soon after World War II. Myanmar is exceptionally rich in plant diversity, but very few new plant collections had been made in this area during the second half of the 1900s (Kress et al. 2003). The first list of plants specifically for Myanmar was compiled in 1922 by J.H. Lace and published in the List of Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Principal Climbers, etc., recorded from Burma. The original edition includes 2,483 species, and the last published edition of 1987 has about 7,000 species. Kress et al. (2003) provided a more comprehensive list based on an inventory of specimens from select herbaria, advice from taxonomic specialists, and records from regional floras. The treatment lists over 11,800 species. The knowledge of the flora is still growing, as the native status of many species is incomplete.

The geology, climate, and vegetation types of Myanmar

Myanmar occupies an area of 678,033 sq. km in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, and the Bay of Bengal on the west, China to the north and northeast, Laos and Thailand to the east, and the Andaman Sea to the south. With the exception of the centrally located Ayeyarwady valley and delta, the most populated area, the terrain is generally hilly and mountainous.

The climate is mostly monsoonal, with cloudy, rainy, hot humid summers (June to September, southwest monsoon) and less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during the winter (December to April, northeast monsoon). Local climate, which has a major influence on the diversity and distribution of plant species, is determined by the combination of temperature, rainfall, and elevation. Geology and the resultant soils are major controlling factors in the local distribution of forest types and of individual species, although to some extent climate and soil counteract one another (Stamp 1925).

The vegetation consists of tropical lowland evergreen rain forest, primarily in the south; tropical hill evergreen rain forest and temperate evergreen rain forest above 900 m in the east, north, and west; semi-evergreen rain forest in a narrow belt bordering an arid central plain; mixed deciduous forest with teak (Tetona grandis) and dry dipterocarp forest centrally; coniferous forests in Shan and Chin States, with Pinus khasya between 1200–2500 m on dry slopes; oak and rhododendron forests on wetter slopes; and dry forest and scrub formations where average annual rainfall is below 100 cm. Additionally, large tracts of bamboo forest are scattered throughout the country.

As recently as 1931, Myanmar was nearly three-quarters forested (Murphy 1931). The Myanmar forest department estimates that closed and degraded forest together currently constitute 343,767 km or approximately 51% of the total area of the country. Myers (1988), quoting Forest Department figures, stated that about 1420 sq. km per annum of primary forest is transformed by shifting cultivation, while Kyaw Tint and Tun Hla (1981) have estimated that open forest increases annually by approximately 278,000 ha per year.

Bringing Burmese text to an English reading audience

The information presented here was compiled utilizing data from written sources and databases on Asian and Myanmar medicinal plants; the Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar (2003), which up-dates the largely unavailable earlier checklists with a more complete treatment of the grasses, orchids, and herbs; and, importantly, the English translation (provided by Thi Thi Ta) of Burmese Medicinal Plants (Agricultural Corporation 1980), an important and extensive book on Burmese medicinal plants, how they are utilized, and their specific preparations.

The families, genera, and species are arranged alphabetically under the following categories: Ferns, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms. Under each genus, the species are listed under the Latin binomial followed by the author(s) and synonyms, English and Myanmar common names, global range and approximate distribution in Myanmar (including if cultivated), uses in Myanmar (for the many species from the newly translated Burmese publication, preparation is also included as well as detailed uses), notes, and references. If the species is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2017), the conservation assessment of the species is included as well.

The family and genus names utilized here are in accordance with those given as taxa accepted in Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (Stevens 2017) and The Plant List (2013). Synonyms are included when the synonym is used in the original referenced texts.

Myanmar distributions presented here are those given by Kress et al. (2003). The distributions should only be considered approximate since, “due to lack of comprehensive herbarium collections of Myanmar plants, accurate determinations of the geographic distribution of taxa are still problematic” (Kress et al. 2003). Distributions are based on data from the original list, existing specimens, and estimates from taxonomic specialists. If the taxon is known to be common, the distribution is designated as “wide”. Common names given here come from the various sources, but most are those given in Kress et al. (2003).

Conservation and sustainability of medicinal plant species

This list contains 123 families, 367 genera, and 472 species of medicinal plants. Of the 472 species, only 63 (13%) have been assessed for conservation status in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2017) (Figure 1). Two species are listed as Extinct in the Wild: Brugmansia arborea (L.) Steud. and Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Bercht. & J.Presl. Both species survive only in cultivation, and thus the size of wild populations of these species is zero. Four species are deemed threatened: Coptis teeta Wall. and Cupressus goveniana Gordon are listed as Endangered, and Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. and Santalum album L. are listed as Vulnerable. Exploitation, unregulated collection, and forest degradation are the primary threats to these species. Two species are listed as Near Threatened (Cycas rumphii Miq. and Dimocarpus longan Lour.), 48 species as Least Concerned, and seven species as Data Deficient.

Figure 1.

IUCN conservation assessments of the medicinal plant species treated in this study (IUCN 2017).

According to Botanic Gardens Conservation International’s ThreatSearch database (BGCI 2017), which is a comprehensive list of threatened plant species at the global, national, and regional scales using both IUCN and non-IUCN methodologies, over 75% (355 species) of the medicinal plants listed here have been assessed for conservation status at one or more scales. These assessments include those listed in the Red Lists of Canada & the United States (NatureServe 2017), Central Asia (Eastwood et al. 2009), China (Wang and Xie 2004), Jordan (Taifour and El-Oqlah 2014), Luxembourg (Colling 2005), South Africa (SANBI 2017), and others, as well as preliminary assessments of the Lesser Antilles (Carrington et al. 2017), the Philippines (Fernando et al. 2008), Puerto Rico (Miller et al. 2013), and individual taxonomic treatments. Of the 355 species that have received national and global assessments, 101 species were deemed threatened (15 Critically Endangered, 31 Endangered, 55 Vulnerable), 66 Near Threatened, 257 Least Concerned, and 29 Data Deficient (totals do not add as most species received multiple assessments and were placed in multiple threat categories). Just under 25% (117 species) have not been assessed at any scale.

According to BGCI’s PlantSearch database (BGCI 2017), a comprehensive list of the botanic garden accessions, 444 species (94%) of the medicinal plants listed here are held within the living collections of botanic gardens worldwide, while 28 species (6%) are not found any botanic garden (Figure 2). The median number of botanic gardens a medicinal plant species is found in is 18 gardens. Eighteen species are found in only one botanic garden, while 125 species are found in 2–10 botanic gardens. The species found in the greatest number of gardens is Taxus baccata L., which is found in 212 botanic gardens, while Salvia officinalis L. is found in 192 botanic gardens worldwide. Of the threatened species listed in the IUCN Red List, the Endangered species Coptis teeta is found in three botanic gardens and the Endangered Cupressus goveniana is found in 45 botanic gardens. The Vulnerable Aquilaria malaccensis is found in five gardens while the Vulnerable Santalum album is found in 22 gardens.

Mounce et al. (2017) argue for targeted strategies to enhance the value of living collections at botanic gardens, including a focus on under-represented phylogenetic lineages, environmental niches, life histories, and medicinal, ethnobotanical, and crop plants. Further, to reduce the pressures of harvesting plants from wild resources, there are calls for conservation strategies (e.g., in situ and ex situ conservation and cultivation practices) and resource management (e.g., sustainable use practices) to sustain wild populations of medicinal plant species (Schippmann et al. 2002, Chen et al. 2016).

Figure 2.

The number of botanic gardens worldwide that have digitally recorded accessions of each of the 472 medicinal plant species treated in this study.

References cited in Introduction

Agricultural Corporation (1980) Burmese Medicinal Plants. Agricultural Corporation, Rangoon. [In Burmese]

BGCI (2017) ThreatSearch online database. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond. http://www.bgci.org/threat_search.php [accessed 29.08.2017]

Carrington CMS, Krupnick GA, Acevedo-Rodríguez P (2017) Herbarium-based preliminary conservation assessments of Lesser Antillean endemic seed plants reveal a flora at risk. The Botanical Review 83(2): 107–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-017-9182-5

Chen SL, Yu H, Luo HM, Wu Q, Li CF, Steinmetz A (2016) Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants: problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese Medicine 11: 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-016-0108-7

Colling G (2005) Red List of the Vascular Plants of Luxembourg. Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, Luxembourg. https://ps.mnhn.lu/ferrantia/publications/Ferrantia42.pdf

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2002) Decision VI/9, Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, 2002–2010. Sixth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP 6). The Hague, The Netherlands. http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=7183

Eastwood A, Lazkov G, Newton A (2009) The Red List of Trees of Central Asia. Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge. https://www.bgci.org/files/Worldwide/News/red_list_of_trees_of_central_asia.pdf

Fernando ES, Co LL, Lagunzad DA, Gruezo WS, Barcelona JF, Madulid DA, Lapis AB, Texon GI, Manila AC, Zamora PM (2008) Threatened plants of the Philippines: A preliminary assessment. Asian Life Sciences Suppl. 3: 1–52.

IUCN (2017) IUCN Red List of threatened species. IUCN, Gland. http://www.iucnredlist.org/ [accessed 01.08.2017]

Kress WJ, DeFilipps RA, Farr E, Daw Yin Yin Kyi (2003) A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 45: 1–590. http://botany.si.edu/pubs/CUSNH/vol_45.pdf

Kurz S (1877) Forest Flora of British Burma. Supdt., Government printer, Calcutta.

Kyaw Tint, Tun Hla (1991) Forest Cover of Myanmar, the 1988 Appraisal. National Forest Management and Inventory, FAO: MYA/85/003. Rome.

Miller SJ, Krupnick GA, Stevens H, Porter-Morgan H, Boom B, Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Ackerman J, Kolterman D, Santiago E, Torres C, Velez J (2013) Toward Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: an expert analysis of the Puerto Rican flora to validate new streamlined methods for assessing conservation status. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Garden 99(2): 199–205. https://doi.org/10.3417/2011121

Mounce R, Smith P, Brockington S (2017) Ex situ conservation of plant diversity in the world’s botanic gardens. Nature Plants 3: 795–802. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-017-0019-3

Murphy M (1931) The geography of Burma. Journal of Geography 30: 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221343108987159

Myers N (1988) Threatened biotas: “Hotspots” in the tropical forestry. Environmentalist 8: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02240252

NatureServe (2017) NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.1. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. http://explorer.natureserve.org [accessed 29.08.2017]

The Plant List (2013) Version 1.1. Published on the Internet. http://www.theplantlist.org/ [accessed 29.08.2017]

SANBI (2017) Red List of South African Plants version 2017.1. http://redlist.sanbi.org/index.php [accessed 29.08.2017]

Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham AB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants on biodiversity: Global trends and issues. In: FAO (Eds) Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. FAO, Rome, 142–167. http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AA010E/AA010E00.HTM

Stamp LD (1925) The Vegetation of Burma from an Ecological Standpoint. Research Monograph No. I. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.

Stevens PF (2017) Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/ [accessed 29.08.2017]

Thein Swe, Sein Win (2005) Herbal Gardens and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Myanmar. 5 pp. World Health Organization. Regional Office for South-East Asia. Pyongyang, DPR Korea.

Taifour H, El-Oqlah A (2014) Jordan Plant Red List. Jordan Royal Botanic Garden, Amman. http://royalbotanicgarden.org/sites/default/files/files/Jordan%20Plant%20Red%20List%20(email)%20-%20Vol%201.pdf

Wang S, Xie Y (2004) China Species Red List. Vol. 1 Red List. Higher Education Press, Beijing, China.

Ferns

Dennstaedtiaceae (Bracken Fern family)

1. Pteridium Gled. ex Scop

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn

Names

Myanmar: boktaung, wetkyein. English: brake, braken, hog-pasture brake, pasture brake.

Range

Cosmopolitan.

Use

Stem: Rhizome used as an anthelmintic.

Notes

Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China, Indo-China, and New Guinea.

Reported constituents include hydrocyanic acid, catechuic tannins, antivitamin B, antivitamin K, and pteridine. The rhizome contains filicic acid, essential oil, resin, some tannin, filicotannic acid, fatty oil, wax, aspidinol, sugar, gum, and starch (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Equisetaceae (Horsetail family)

1. Equisetum L

Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Hauke (= Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher)

Names

Myanmar: myet-sek. English: weak horsetail.

Range

Europe from Loire, southern Bavaria and central Russia southwards, in isolated localities in Brittany (France), the Netherlands and northern Germany; Asia; Africa; and America.

Use

Whole plant: Used to treat gonorrhea.

Notes

In India the whole plant is used for gonorrhea and as an abortifacient (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the species is used internally to treat dysentery; also to improve eyesight (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In Malaysia it is used for pain, especially arthritic pain; in Indonesia it is used externally to treat bruises, fractures, and arthritis; and in Korea, China, Taiwan, and Indo-China it is used internally to treat dysentery (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents of Equisetum include fatty oil, silicic acid, linoleic acid, equisetonine, equisetic acid, and equisetine (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Gleicheniaceae (Forking Fern family)

1. Dicranopteris Bernh

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) Underw. (= Gleichenia linearis (Burm.f.) C.B.Clarke)

Name

English: savannah fern.

Range

Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.

Uses

Whole plant: Used as an antipyretic, antiasthmatic, and anthelmintic.

Notes

In Indo-China the plant is considered to be anthelmintic. On the Malay Peninsula crushed leaves are applied as a poultice for fever, a decoction is used as an embrocation, or an infusion may be drunk (“large and strong doses are apparently injurious”) (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Gymnosperms

Cupressaceae (Cypress family)

1. Cupressus L

Cupressus goveniana Gordon

Name

English: California cypress.

Range

California, in North America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Endangered [EN B2ab(ii,iii,v)] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Plant used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in Nordal 1963).

Notes

A member of this genus, Cypressus funebris, is used in China to dispel colds; the leaves are antiperiodic and provide a remedy for bleeding piles, hematuria, and menorrhea. In Indo-China another member of the genus, Cypressus hodginsii, is known to have vaso-constrictory and astringent properties (Perry 1980).

The monocyclic sesquiterpene fokienol is a reported chemical constituent of Cypressus hodginsii Dunn (= Fokienia hodginsii (Dunn) Henry & Thomas) (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Cycadaceae (Cycad family)

1. Cycas L

Cycas rumphii Miq.

Names

Myanmar: mondaing. English: cycad.

Range

Northern Australia and Malay Archipelago. In Myanmar, found in Taninthayi and Yangon.

Conservation status

Near Threatened [NT] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Male bracts: Used as aphrodisiac, narcotic, and stimulant. Fruit or Seed:

Applied to ulcers, wounds (including malignant and varicose), skin lesions, and used for various skin diseases.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of the species in Indo-China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Admiralty Island, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands are discussed in Perry (1980). The application may be the poisonous juice of the fruit, the raw seed grated or macerated, or roasted, powdered and mixed with coconut oil (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Taxaceae (Yew family)

1. Taxus L

Taxus baccata L.

Names

Myanmar: kyauk-tinyu. English: yew.

Range

Europe, North Africa, western Asia. In Myanmar found in Chin and Shan.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Leaf, Fruit: Used as an antispasmodic, sedative, and as an emmenagogue.

Notes

In India the leaf and fruit are used as an antispasmotic, sedative, and emmenagogue (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The leaf is also used as an aphrodisiac; to treat epilepsy, asthma, indigestion, and bronchitis. Other medicinal uses for this species include expectorant, pectoral, sedative, stomachic, tonic; abortifacient, antifertility (chemical found in plant shown to be effective for this purpose), contraceptive; for headache, bilious, calculus, for cancer, carminative, cyanogenetic, epilepsy, lithontriptic, medicine Tacholm; giddiness, nerves, spasm; poison, vermifuge, insecticide (Duke 2009).

The leaves and seeds of Taxus species contain the alkaloid taxine which is poisonous, “and while Taxus is sometimes used as medicine this also has caused instances of poisoning” (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Angiosperms

Acanthaceae (Acanthus family)

1. Acanthus L

Acanthus ilicifolius L.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Root: Considered to be an aphrodisiac. Seed: Used in poultices.

Notes

In Taiwan the fruit, mixed with butter and made into a paste, is smoothed on to prevent the bursting of smallpox pustules; in Indo-China the bark is used to heal cutaneous affections, especially scabies; in Indonesia a resinous substance exuded from the bark “acts as a contraceptive, and apparently can be taken all year long without ill effects”; and in the Philippines the seeds are a maturative and a cicatrizant of ulcers, also resin from the sapwood is applied locally to snakebites (Perry 1980).

The bark contains tannin and lapachol (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

4. Barleria L

Barleria prionitis L.

Names

Myanmar: leik-su-ywe, leik-hsu shwe, leik tha-shwe war. English: barleria, porcupine flower.

Range

Tropical Asia, Africa, and India. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon, especially in fields and pastures.

Uses

Bitter and astringent in taste, highly beneficial for skin and blood diseases. Whole plant: Crushed, cooked with sesame oil and applied to itches, ringworm and boils. Whole plant, Leaf: Used as diuretic in dropsy and as febrifuge. Stem and Leaf: Crushing the leaves together with the stems and branches, stewing them in a mixture of one part sesame oil to two parts water and straining the mixture provides an oil that can be applied to long-standing sores. Leaf: Made into an ash and taken with fermented rice washing water to bring down swelling from edemas and dropsy; mixed with butter and applied to longstanding sores, to help them heal quickly. Leaves boiled to make a strong tea, and the mixture held in the mouth to strengthen loose teeth. Juice from crushing leaves- applied to scorpion sting will neutralize the poison, also used to treat inflamed areas; mixed with either honey, sugar, or warm water and given to cure children with coughs, fever and bronchitis; also used to treat chronic cough. Juice from grinding the leaves applied to treat fungus infections on the soles of the feet and between the toes. Roots: Ground and applied to bring down inflammation and infection in swellings, bumps, and sores.

Note

In India the root is placed on boils and glandular swellings; the bark is used for dropsy; and the leaf for toothache and rheumatism (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

5. Hygrophila R.Br

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (= Asteracantha longifolia Nees; Hygrophila spinosa T. Anderson)

Names

Myanmar: le-padu, su-padang. English: hygrophila.

Range

Wet places in Indo-China, Myanmar, Bangla Desh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan Punjab, and Tropical Africa. In Myanmar, found in Bago.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Leaf: Used in treating jaundice. Leaf, Root, Seed: Used as expectorant, and diuretic in dropsy. Root: Used to treat rheumatism. Seed: Employed as an aphrodisiac.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The whole plant is used for malarial fever; the leaf and seed as a diuretic, for jaundice, cough, dropsy, rheumatism, and urogenital diseases; the seed as an aphrodisiac; and the bulb for tubercular fistula, sores, skin cancer, dropsy, and swelling of the face and body. Primarily the leaves are used for poulticing fresh wounds, sprained limbs, swellings, abscesses, boils, and headaches (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents in species belonging to this genus include an alkaloid; various enzymes; and linoleic, oleic, and ricinoleic acids (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Hygrophila phlomoides Nees

Names

Myanmar: hsay-dan, meegyaung-kun-hpat, migyaung-kunbat. English: Burma linseed.

Range

Temperate Asia: China and Tropical Asia: Indian subcontinent. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Uses

Seed: Used for making medicines to cure sore eyes, for flatulence, and for discoloration and fungal infections of the skin. Crushed and used as a poultice over festering and long-standing sores.

Notes

In India the leaf is used for boils and headache (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

In East and Southeast Asia, primarily the leaves are used for poulticing fresh wounds, sprained limbs, swellings, abscesses, boils, and headache (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

6. Justicia L

Justicia adhatoda L. (= Adhatoda vasica Nees)

Names

Myanmar: my-yar-gyi, ye-magyi, htingra-hpraw (Kachin), hla brairot (Mon). English: adulsa, Malabar nut tree.

Range

India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar. Cultivated in the tropics. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Whole plant: Used in medicine to remove phlegm, and for excessive menses. Leaf: Astringent and bitter, the leaves have cooling properties that regulate phlegm and bile, ease diarrhea, alleviate coughing and coughing up blood, and relieve chronic asthma. They also alleviate coughing with fever, bad breath, and swellings in the lower extremities. To relieve pain and urinary infections, three tablespoons of liquid from boiling leaves, reduced to one-third starting volume, are ingested. Leaves dried in the shade, converted to ash, and ground to a fine powder can be pressed onto gums and teeth for toothaches, bleeding gums, and loose teeth. Leaves are also used to make medicines for eye ailments. Stewing the leaves and taking the liquid used to treat dysentery; also, for dysentery, male-related weaknesses, and excessive menstruation, liquid from boiling a handful of leaves in water reduced to one-third the starting volume is taken three times a day. The juice of crushed young leaves with either wine or honey is used to treat whooping cough. Leaf extract is antiseptic. Flower: About one tablespoon of the juice squeezed from the flowers and leaves can be taken with a moderate amount of rock sugar to for bile problems and for vomiting and otherwise passing blood. Fruit: For vomiting and otherwise passing blood, three tablespoons of liquid from kyazu (Terminalia citirina) fruit soaked in leaf juice can be taken. Root (or Leaf): To treat asthma and coughs, one tablespoon of juice from the crushed roots or leaves mixed with moderate amounts of rock sugar and rock salt can be taken. Black mu yargyi (probably Adhatoda vasica = Justicia adhatoda) root can be made into a paste with cold water and rubbed onto scorpion sting to neutralize the venom. The root is also a component in insecticides.

Notes

In India the species is used in Ayurvedic medicine as a blood purifier and antispasmodic, as well as a treatment for bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis, coughing, and intestinal worms (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

“Reported constituents of the leaves are a very small amount of essential oil, vasicine (an alkaloid), and adhatodic acid. The first two have therapeutic properties. The alkaloid produces a slight fall in blood pressure followed by a rise to the original level, an increase persistent broncho-dilator effect.” Antiseptic and insecticidal properties are attributed to it (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

7. Peristrophe Nees

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees

Uses

Of the two varieties of this species, the larger is used in traditional medicines. Rhizome: Preparations made from the rhizome are used to promote urinary flow, relieve constipation, and cleanse impurities from the body. The stewed rhizome is given for fever, coughs, and poisoning. A mixture of the rhizome that has been roasted until charred with oil is used as a rub applied topically to ease stomachaches and bloating in children. A mixture of the rhizome with cashew oil is used as a rub to relieve swollen joints and sore muscles. A mixture of equal amounts of the dried rhizome with samone hpyu (Trachyspermum ammi) is burned to create smoke for inhaling as a cure for hemorrhoids. The rhizome powder is taken with warm milk for sore throat. A mixture of the rhizome with hsay-khar-gyi (Andrographis paniculata) is given to reduce fever. To expel worms, a mixture of equal amounts of the rhizome with baked shein-kho (Gardenia resinifera) is given to children. A mixture of the rhizome powder with dried ginger powder and honey is taken for partial paralysis of the mouth, chin, and cheek. A mixture of the rhizome powder with honey is licked as a cure for epilepsy and to treat loss of sanity.

Notes

The medicinal uses of his species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Adoxaceae (Moschatel family)

1. Sambucus L

Sambucus javanica Blume

Names

Myanmar: pale-ban. English: Chinese elder, elderberry, Javanese elderberry.

Range

Japan, Taiwan, southeastern Asia, Malaysian Archipelago. In Myanmar found in Chin, Kachin, Sagaing, and Shan.

Uses

Leaf, Flower: Diuretic, purgative.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Here the whole plant is decocted for ague, bone ache, dropsy, spasms, swellings, and traumatic injuries; the leaf is used for pain and numbness, diseases of bones, and rheumatic problems; the fruit is employed as a depurative and purgative, and a decoction is used for injuries, skin disease, and swelling; the root is used for numbness, pain, rheumatic difficulties, and bone diseases.

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Altingiaceae (Sweet-gum family)

1. Altingia Noronha

Altingia excelsa Noronha

Names

Myanmar: nantayok. English: Burmese storax.

Range

India and Myanmar to Java; also cultivated. In Myanmar, it is found in Kachin and Taninthayi.

Use

Stem: Resin used as remedy for orchitus.

Notes

In India the resin is used on leucoderma and scabies; also for an antiscorbutic, carminative, stomachic, and expectorant (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China it is used as a tonic, and liquid storax is used in a tonic and stimulant, considered especially good for chest complaints. On the Malay Peninsula it is mixed with other drugs, and used as a tonic. In Indonesia the natives use the leaves for medicinal purposes (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents include essential oil, vanilline, cinnamic acid, styrolene, naphthalene, and caoutchouc (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Amaranthaceae (Cockscomb family)

1. Achyranthes L

Achyranthes aspera L.

In India the seed is used to treat skin diseases (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China juice from the stem is applied to freckles and sunburn; leaves are applied to insect bites, sunstroke, and as a wash for swollen feet; a decoction is used as a rinse for carious teeth (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In China, in addition to the uses of juice from the fresh plant previously mentioned, the seeds are eaten as an anthelmintic. In Indo-China the plant is used to treat blennorrhea in women (Perry 1980).

Reported chemical constituents include betaine, leucien, and essential oil (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

7. Dysphania R.Br

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (= Chenopodium ambrosioides L.)

Names

Myanmar: say-my. English: Mexican tea, strong-scented pigweed, wormseed.

Range

Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Whole plant: Used as an anthelmintic, especially for roundworms but also for hookworms, as well as a remedy for intestinal amoebae.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in general, and also gives its uses in Japan, Indo-China, and the Philippines. Medicinal use, chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990).

Reported chemical constituents of the plant include volatile oil, ascaridol, geraniol, saponin, 1-limonene, p-cymene, and d-camphor (Perry 1980). The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition, and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Amaryllidaceae (Amaryllis family)

1. Allium L

Allium cepa L.

Names

Uses

Leaf: Boiled and used as a bath, or the juice applied as a thick liquid to treat edema. The leaves are wilted over hot charcoal and wrapped around the knees for swollen knees, or placed on the back for about one hour for backaches. Leaf and Bulb: Used to neutralize poisons and regulate flatulence, phlegm, and urine. Bulb: Ground (on a stone) to make a paste for reducing the heat from swellings or for weeping sores (this paste, however, causes some itching). For instances of poisoning, it is enough to rub the tongue with the bulb, which is also used as a special ingredient in shar-put-hsay (a commonly used form of traditional medicine consisting of a grayish brown powder roughly rolled into little nuggets rolled around the tongue until dissolve into its components).

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Anacardiaceae (Cashew family)

1. Anacardium L

Anacardium occidentale L. (= Acajuba occidentalis (L.) Gaertn.; Anacardium microcarpum Ducke)

Names

Myanmar: thiho-thayet, shitkale, mak-mong-sang-yip. English: cashew nut.

Range

Tropical America. Probably originating in Brazil. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: A restorative. Bark, Leaf, Fruit: Used as an anthelmintic, also for leucoderma and other skin diseases as well as for diabetes. Fruit: The kernel (nut) is a pain reliever.

Notes

The cashew nut, a true fruit, is rich in lipids, glucosides, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin B. It further yields a fair amount of protein, mineral salts, iron and fiber. The oil is a laxative and acts powerfully against intestinal worms; it is also excellent for use to treat premature aging of the skin. The irritating oil obtained after soaking the nuts in water is viscous-brown and contains 90% anacardic acid and 10% cardol which exhibits potent antibacterial activity against Gram positive bacteria. It is also used to treat sores, warts, ringworm and psoriasis (Beauvoir et al. 2001).

Used in cosmetics, the juice contains substances capable of capturing free radicals. It has value for hair conditioning due to its proteins and mucilage. Therefore it is an excellent scalp conditioner and tonic used for making lotions and scalp creams. The enlarged receptacle (cashew apple) with a waxy skin provides vitamins A, B, and C, a few amino acids, calcium and iron. It exhibits strong potential activity against Gram positive bacteria and somewhat less antifungal activity against molds. The juice made from the cashew apple cures influenza (Beauvoir et al. 2001). “Ingestion of raw cashew nuts can cause eczematous dermatitis that is generalized but especially severe on the palms” of the hands (Benezra et al. 1985).

The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995).

The receptacle (pseudo-fruit) contains vitamin C; the main phenolic components of the oil from the shells are anacardic acid and cardol, which have antibacterial, molluscicidal and anthelminic properties; the inner bark has hypoglycemic action; tannins in the bark have anti-inflammatory properties; and, the essential oil of the leaves, which is comprised almost exclusively of alpha-pinene, acts as a depressant on the central nervous system (Mors et al. 2000). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of this species are discussed by Ross (2001).

The seed of Anacardium occidentale contain anacardic acid which causes skin pustules or rashes, and also contains bilobol, which has antitumor activity (Lan et al. 1998).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

2. Buchanania Spreng

Buchanania lancifolia Roxb.

Uses

Bark: Used as an astringent. Fruit: Ripe fruit used as laxative and rind used as tonic. Seed: Employed as an antiasthmatic.

Notes

Benezra et al. (1985) noted that: “People eating the fruit may suffer erythemato- vesicular eruptions of the lips and the entire face and neck…and sometimes the genitals. The peel, not the juice, seems to be responsible”; such dermatitis is known as “mango poisoning.”

The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995) and Bekele-Tesemma (1993). Uses of this plant in the Upper Amazon region, where some Amerindian tribes use a brew of the leaves as a contraceptive and abortifacient, are given by Castner et al. (1998). All parts of the Mangifera indica plant contain resorcinol, an irritant to the mouth and tongue (Lan et al. 1998).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

5. Rhus L

Rhus chinensis Mill. (= Rhus semialata Murray)

Names

Myanmar: chying-ma, mai-kokkyi, mai-kokkyin. English: nutgall tree.

Range

Temperate eastern Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Mon, Sagaing, and Shan.

Uses

Fruit: Used to treat colic. Galls: Used as astringent.

Notes

In India the flower buds are used for diarrhea; the fruit for stomachache; and the seed for stomachache and as a purgative, also on skin diseases (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Duke and Ayensu (1985) discuss the uses of the the bark, leaf, and root bark of this species in China, as well as those of the whole plant.

The chemical constituents of the species include gallic acid and penta-m-digalloyl-beta-glucose (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

6. Semecarpus L.f

Semecarpus anacardium L.f. (= Semecarpus heterophyllus Bl.; Semecarpus albescens (non Kurz) K. & V.; Semecarpus cinerea H.H.W. Pearson; Semecarpus glabrescens Heine; Melanochyla tomentosa (non Hook.f.) Engl.)

Names

Myanmar: che, chay-thee pin, thitsi-bo, mai-ka-aung (Shan). English: markingnut tree, varnishtree.

Range

Tropical Asia. Reported from Myanmar.

Uses

Sweet and astringent, Semecarpus anacardium has heating properties that regulate bowels, aid digestion, control phlegm and respiratory function, heal sores, alleviate leprosy, and reduce hemorrhoids, bloating, and fevers. Bark: Used as an astringent. Fruit: Serves as a laxative. Fruit: Can be crushed together with lime (the chemical) as a poultice to heal sores. Three drops of the oily sap released by the heated fruit can be taken with milk for coughing. Children can be given just two drops of this sap twice a day to alleviate phlegm and coughing. Crushed fruit can be applied to joints to relieve inflammation. An ointment of the fruit mixed with resin from the “in” tree (Dipterocarpus tuberculatus) cooked with sesame oil can be used to treat rashes, itches, and cracks on the heels and soles of the feet. A paste of ground fruit and sesame oil remedies ringworm. The fruit is also used in medicines for motor paralysis and joint inflammation. The rind is used as a tonic. Seed: Used as an antiasthmatic, also to treat leprosy. Note: The fruit is included in the list of toxic plants and, therefore, should be used only after preparing systematically.

Note

In India, the resin of this species is used for leprosy, nervous debility, skin diseases; and the fruit oil is used on warts and tumors; on cuts, sprains, piles, injuries; and for ascites, rheumatism, asthma, neuralgia, dyspepsia, epilepsy, psoriasis (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

7. Spondias L

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (= Spondias magifera Willd.)

Names

Myanmar: bwe-baung, ding-kok, gwe, hpunnam-makawk, mai-kawk, mai-mak-kawk. English: hog plum, wild mango.

Range

Thought probably native to Indonesia and the Philippines; found in China, sub-Himalayan tract from Chenab eastwards; widely cultivated and naturalized in Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia (peninsular), Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Reported from Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Used for dysentery. Fruit: Used as antiscorbutic; considered a remedy for dyspepsia.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The bark is used for stomachache and as a refrigerant; the fruit as an astringent, antiscorbutic, and for bilious dyspepsia; and the root for regulating menstruation. Perry (1980) also discusses the medicinal uses of this species in Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia.

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Nordal (1963), Kirtikar and Basu (1993), Duke (2009), Rahman et al. (2005a).

4. Polyalthia Blume

Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thwaites

Names

Myanmar: arthaw-ka, lan-tama, thinbaw-te. English: false ashoka, green champa, Indian fir tree, Indian mast tree.

Range

Sri Lanka and southern India; cultivated in India, Malaya, Pakistan and Tropical East Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Bark: Used as febrifuge.

Notes

Significant antimicrobial and antifungal activity of clerodane diterpenoids has been found from the seeds of this species (Marthanda Murthy et al. 2005). Methanolic extracts have yielded 20 known and two new organic compounds, some of which show cytotoxic properties (Chen et al. 2000).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Apiaceae (Carrot family)

1. Anethum L

Anethum graveolens L. (= Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Hiern.)

Names

Myanmar: sameik, samon nyo. English: dill, European dill, Indian dill.

Range

Indigenous to Mediterranean region, but adventive and cultivated worldwide in tropical and temperate climates. Grows naturally and is also cultivated in Upper Myanmar.

Uses

Fruit, Seed: Used as carminative, stomachic, and spasmolytic. Leaf, Seed: Hot-tasting seeds and leaves contain heating properties used to stimulate circulation and gall bladder function, as well as to alleviate fever, inflammation, and congestion. Seed: A boiled-water extract of the seeds is reduced to one-third the starting volume and taken for chest discomfort, shooting pains, and aches. The same extract is given to new mothers as a tonic for the heart and as a postnatal restorative. The roasted seeds are eaten plain or with rock sugar to stimulate lactation. Brushed with oil and roasted over a fire, the leaves are pulverized into an ointment applied to sores to reduce inflammation.

Notes

This is a common plant widely cultivated for use as an herb, and for its fruit which is used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and carminative. The medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

2. Apium L

Apium graveolens L.

Names

Myanmar: samut, tayokenan-nan, kum-bomb-kroke (Mon). English: celery, cultivated celery, marsh parsley, wild celery.

Range

Eurasia and worldwide. Although found growing naturally, it is cultivated all over Myanmar for use as a vegetable.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Whole plant: The watery extract of the whole plant mixed with sugar or honey is used as a remedy for hypertension. Seed: With heating properties, the easily digestible yet bitter, sharp-tasting seeds are used to support digestion, increase sperm, promote circulation, control blood pressure, ease inflammation in the breathing passages, alleviate nausea and vomiting, and treat whooping cough and dropsy. Juice from chewing- the seeds wrapped in betel (Piper betle) leaf, is held in the mouth to treat dry coughs and coughs with mucus; the seeds alone, is swallowed to stop hiccups. The powder from pulverized seeds mixed with clove buds is ingested to alleviate nausea. Seeds with roasted salt are eaten to cure stomachaches. Seeds mixed with jaggery are shaped into pellets and taken for indigestion, overeating, and stomach distention.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

In Thailand, researchers have shown that the seed extract is an effective larvicide for the dengue fever mosquito vector, Aedes aegypti (Tuetun et al. 2005, Choochote et al. 2004).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

3. Centella L

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (= Hydrocotyle asiatica L.)

9. Trachyspermum Link

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague (= Carum copticum Benth & Hook. f.)

Names

Myanmar: samone hpyu, gyee baitwine (Mon). English: bishop’s weed, lovage.

Range

Worldwide in tropical and temperate climates. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Seed: With heating properties similar to the seeds of A. graveolens, the seeds of C. copticum are used to promote appetite, digestion, and gall bladder and gastrointestinal functioning. The pulverized seeds, mixed with ground with pepper, rock salt, and hot water, are ingested as a treatment for stomachaches, dysentery, and sluggish digestion. Blended with yogurt, the seed powder is consumed to eradicate intestinal parasites. A mixture of the seeds and mother’s milk is given to children to alleviate vomiting and diarrhea. A thick paste made from ground seeds and water is applied two to three times daily to quell itching and to heal burns and rashes.

Notes

The seeds of this species are considered antispasmodic, tonic, carminative, and are included in plasters to ease pain. Crushed with a variety of simples, they are prescribed as internal medicine for diseases of the stomach and liver, as well as for sore throats, coughs, and rheumatism (Perry 1980).

The seeds have been found to be an important source of thymol, “a well-known antiseptic” (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff

Names

Myanmar: kant-balu. English: wild celery.

Range

Apparently native to South India. Cultivated as a spice throughout the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Apparently native to South India. Cultivated and adventive in China.

Use

Plant employed for culinary and medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in Perry 1980).

Note

Trachyspermum roxburghianum reported to be used as a stimulant, cardiotonic, carminative, and for dyspepsia (Duke 2009).

In the case of another species in this genus, T. ammi (which occurs is Southwest Asia, India, and Northeast Africa), the seeds are considered to be antispasmodic, tonic, a stimulant, carminative, and are included in plasters to ease pain. Crushed with a variety of simples, the seeds are prescribed as internal medicine for diseases of the stomach and liver, for sore throats, coughs, rheumatism, and as a panacea. T. ammi seeds are an “important source of thymol, a well-known antiseptic” (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)

1. Allamanda L

Allamanda cathartica L.

Names

Myanmar: shwe-pan-new, shewewa-pan. English: common allamanda, golden trumpet.

Range

Origin probably in northern South America, but now widespread in tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Hydragogue in ascites. Leaf: Cathartic (in moderate doses).

Note

In India the bark is used as a hydragogue for ascites; the leaf as a cathartic (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

2. Alstonia R.Br

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.

Names

Myanmar: letpan-ga, taung-mayo, taung-meok. English: devil tree, dita bark.

Range

China, Cambodia, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; also Tropical Australia and Africa. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon. Grows naturally in the plains and on low hills, particularly in Lower Myanmar.

Conservation status

Lower Risk/least concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Bark: Used to treat asthma, heart disease, for chronic ulcers, and other ailments. The powder mixed with ginger is given to new mothers the first day after birthing to cleanse the blood and promote lactation. Bark paste is applied to boils and other sores to minimize inflammation and hasten healing. A bark extract made with boiling water and then mixed with Cinnamomum obtusifolium seed powder is sipped to expel intestinal parasites, such as threadworms and roundworms. Reduced to one-third the starting volume, a boiled-water bark extract is consumed to treat lung disease, sour stomach, paralysis, cerebral palsy, heart disease, asthma, fever, shooting pain, and stomachache. Remedies made from the components of the Devil’s tree are known for stimulating the circulatory and respiratory systems, promoting weight gain, and controlling heart disease, asthma, and skin conditions. Latex: Applied locally to ulcers, sores, yaws, the hollow of an aching tooth, to mature abscesses or boils, to kill maggots in wounds of cattle, and to draw out thorns and splinters. Sap: Applied to sores to stimulate healing; mixed with sesame oil and swabbed inside the ear to treat earache. Bark, Sap, Leaf: Used in treatments for fever, weakness, paralysis, sores, aches, pains, and gastric problems including dysentery. Leaf: Used in poultices; green leaves applied to back or dried leaves burned under beds to induce lacteal secretion; infusion of young leaves taken in the morning helpful in cases of beri-beri; leaf tips are taken with roasted coconut to treat stomatitis. Tender leaves are wilted over heat, crushed, and applied to infected sores to accelerate healing.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The bark is a bitter tonic, alterative, anthelmintic, and galactagogue; it is also used for fever, diarrhea, dysentery (powdered and mixed with honey), snakebite and skin diseases, heart disease, leprosy, leucoderma, tumors, rheumatism, cholera, bronchitis, and pneumonia; the juice is used on ulcers and for rheumatic pains; and the root for an enlarged liver. Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reported constituents include the following alkaloids: echitamine (also called ditain), ditamine, echitenine, alstonamine, echitamidine (Perry 1980).

Investigators have reported activity against the snail vector, Lymnaea acuminata, of the parasitic flukes Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica (Singh and Singh 2005), as well as anti-cancer activity in human cancer cell lines (Jagetia and Baliga 2006) and antibacterial activity (Khan et al. 2003).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

3. Asclepias L

Asclepias curassavica L.

Names

Myanmar: shwedagon. English: blood flower, butterfly weed, red milkweed.

Range

Native of New World, from Florida to South America and West Indies. Widely introduced and cultivated elsewhere.

Uses

Leaf: Juice pressed from the leaves for use as a vermifuge, sudorific, and anti- dysenteric. Leaf and Flower: Pounded leaves and flowers used as a dressing for wounds and sores. Flower: Decoction of the flowers is styptic. Root: Employed as a purgative, emetic and anthelmintic. Also, in the form of a powder or decoction, used as an emetic and purgative, also as an astringent in dysentery.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). The listed medicinal uses of the root are the same for China, Indo-China, the Philippines, and Guam as they are for Myanmar; on the Malay Peninsula the flowers are crushed in cold water and used in a poultice for headache (Perry 1980). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997).

The leaves contain a triterpinoid and an alkaloid. The active glycoside, asclepiadin, is poisonous, causing paralysis of the heart, and death (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

4. Calotropis R.Br

Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. (= Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. ex Schult.)

Names

Myanmar: mayo. English: crown flower.

Range

Tropical Asia, including Myanmar.

Uses

Sap: Used in treating leprosy and as a purgative. Bark: Used as an anthelmintic. Bark and Latex: Used to treat skin diseases and as a vermifuge. Flower: Used as an antiasthmatic. Root: Root bark has been substituted for ipecac, especially to treat dysentery; also used in treating skin disease.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). In China, the bark of the species is used as a medicine for the treatment of neurodermatitis and syphilis, and the leaves are employed as a poultice (Li et al. 1995).

The latex contains caoutchouc, resins, water soluble matter, and a residue. It yields digitalis-like principles (uscharin, calotropin, and calotoxin), and a nitrogen and sulphur-containg compound, gigantin, which depresses the heart. Calcium oxalate, traces of glutathione, and a proteolytic enzyme similar to papain have also been found (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.

Names

Myanmar: mayoe. English: swallow-wart.

Range

Tropical Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, along the banks of streams and rivers and along sand bars.

Use

Root: Crushed root with water and pressed into aching tooth to cure toothaches. Crushed with the root of the cotton plant to neutralize snake venom. Either the seeds or the root can be made into a paste with water to neutralize scorpion venom. Crushed, slightly warmed and rubbed to cure stiff and aching thighs and calves. Powdered root together with honey will cure skin diseases and leprosy. The root is used as an inhaler for treating epileptic fits. Flower: Crushed with milk and taken everyday to cure kidney stones. Stir fried with sesame oil to regulate menstruation. The flowers are used in making medicines to cure cholera. Latex: Rubbed and massaged on aching and stiff knees. Crushed with the bark of hsu-byu (Thevetia peruviana) and applied around the navel and over the bladder to cure retention of urine. Made into a paste with turmeric to treat face discolorations. The latex and the sap of thanat-taw (Garcinia heterandra) can be made into a paste can reduce swelling of hives and other bumps on the skin. A paste made with shein-kho (Gardenia resinifera) can reduce unbearable pain. Stem: Used as medicine to treat internal hemorrhoids. The dried branch can ignited and the fumes inhaled to cure headaches and stiffness in the neck and back. Leaf: The juice from crushing the can be put into the ears to cure earaches. The juice from the crushed leaves taken with a bit of salt will reduce phlegm, asthma, stomach disorders, and distended stomach. Making up ointments to treat paralysis and strokes, and inflammation of joints.

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

5. Carissa L

Carissa spinarum L. (= Carissa spinarum Lodd. ex A.DC.)

Names

Myanmar: khan, khanzat, taw-khan-pin. English: natal plum.

Range

India and Sri Lanka to Myanmar. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Root: Used as antiseptic and purgative.

Notes

In India the root is an ingredient of purgatives (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

A tribe in India grinds the roots and uses them in combination with the roots of some other medicinal plants to treat rheumatism. The roots are also a strong purgative (a large dose may prove fatal). Additionally, roughly ground root powder is mixed with water and poured into holes of snakes to serve as a repellant (Parmar and Kaushal 1982).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

6. Cascabela Raf

Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold (= Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum.)

Names

Myanmar: hset-hnayarthi, mawk-hkam-long (Shan), payaung-pan, sethnayathi, set-hnit-ya-thi. English: exile oleander, lucky nut, Peruvian yellow oleander, yellow oleander.

Range

South America, Neotropical. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar; also cultivated there.

Uses

Although poisonous if consumed by itself, C. thevetia is considered effective in preparations for eye infections, as well as for fever, leprosy, and hemorrhoids. Bark: Bark preparations are used for fevers, burns, ringworm, and rashes. Bark, Seed: Bark and seeds are used for a purgative and heart tonic. Leaf: The extract from crushed leaves is mixed with water and cooked with olive oil until all of the water evaporates; the resulting oil is used to alleviate joint aches and pains. Leaf, Flower: The extract from crushed flowers and/or leaves is mixed with water and cooked with olive oil until all of the water evaporates, and the resulting oil is used to treat rashes and other skin disorders. Root: Root paste cooked with mustard oil forms an ointment to heal skin problems; mixed with water it is applied as an antifungal to the skin to clear ringworm infections.

Notes

Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997).

Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995). Toxicity of this species is discussed by Bruneton (1999). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986). All parts of the plant contain thevetin and peruvoside which can cause cardiac arrest; peruvoside is however used in medicine for cardiac insufficiency (Lan et al. 1998).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

7. Catharanthus G. Don

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (= Vinca rosea L.)

Names

Myanmar: thinbaw-ma-hnyoe, thinbaw-ma-hnyo-pan, thinbaw-ma-hnyo-pan-aphyu. English: Madagascar periwinkle, periwinkle, vinca.

Range

Endemic to Madagascar (endangered), but cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics of both hemispheres, sometimes extending to the subtropics. Found growing naturally around Myanmar; also cultivated.

Uses

This plant is known for neutralizing poisons, facilitating digestion, and promoting weight gain. Whole plant: Used to treat diabetes. A boiled water extract of the five parts used to treat diabetes. Leaf: Drinking the aqueous extract of leaves alleviates hemor-rhaging during menstruation.

Although there are two kinds of plants – with white or reddish brown flowers – only the plant with the reddish brown flowers is used.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: A tea made of the whole plant is used for chitis. The leaf is used for menorrhagia (infusion), wasp stings (juice), and diabetes. The root is used as a purgative and for hypertension; also for leukemia, and is considered anti-cancerous. Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). Here the plant is used as an astringent, bechic, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue; also as an anti-cancer agent.

The species contains the alkaloid serpentine which, like reserpine, is hypotensive, sedative, and tranquilizing (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Catharanthus roseus compounds have been used to develop anticancer drugs, including vinblastine and vincristine (van der Heijden et al. 2004, Ram and Kumari 2001). Duke and Ayensu (1985) extensively discuss the chemical constituents of the plant that are considered valuable in treating various cancers, noting that “More than 50 alkaloids have been identified from this major medicinal plant,” and the species contains several hypo-glycemic alkaloids (catharanthine, leurosine sulphate, lochnerine, tetrahydro- alstonine, vindoline, and vindolinine) used in treating various cancers.

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

8. Dregea E.Mey

Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f.

Uses

Root: Pounded root employed as poultice. Nordal (1963) lists species as having medicinal value, but exact uses not given.

Notes

. The species is used medicinally for sores and syphilis; also cholinergic (chemical found in plant shown to be effective for this). Kopsia fruticosa contains latex used in arrow poison (Duke 2009).

A very poisonous alkaloid is found in the bark, leaves, and seeds. The alkaloid kopsine has been isolated from the leaves of plants of this species growing in India. Other alkaloids are also present (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

12. Nerium L

Nerium oleander L. (= Nerium indicum Mill.; Nerium odorum Soland.)

Names

Myanmar: nwei thargi. English: oleander, rose of Sharon.

Range

From Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula, Ethiopia, Niger, Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq to India and central China. Found all over Myanmar; naturalized, also cultivated as an ornamental plant.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

This plant is poisonous if ingested; it can be applied externally only.

Leaf: Powder from pulverized leaves used for ringworm, itchy skin, and other external inflammations; alternatively, the boiled water extract of leaves is used to alleviate inflammation. Liquid from crushed leaves is applied to snakebites to neutralize the venom, as well as to bites or stings from other venomous animals. Root: The root powder is applied to the skin to alleviate headache and neutralize poisons from scorpion and snakebites. Mixed with water, the root powder is applied as an ointment for skin cancer, ringworm and other fungal conditions, earache, infected lesions, and leprosy.

Notes

Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

In India the leaf is used as a cardiotonic and oil from the root bark is employed for skin diseases (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

The bark contains glycosides with digitalis-like activity (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). N. indicum bark extract has activity against the snail vector, Lymnaea acuminata, of the parasitic flukes Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantic (Singh and Singh 1998), as well as antiviral activity against influenza and herpes simplex (Rajbhandari et al. 2001).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

13. Plumeria L

Plumeria rubra L. (= Plumeria acutifolia Poir.; Plumeria acuminata W.T. Aiton)

Names

Myanmar: mawk-sam-ka, mawk-sam-pailong, sonpabataing, tayoksaga-ani tayok-saga (red form). English: frangipani, pagoda tree, red plumeria.

Range

Mexico, Central America, South Asia. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar except in very cool mountainous areas; also cultivated.

Uses

Known to promote digestive, excretory, respiratory, and immune functioning, with activity against leprosy, infections, and stomach ailments. Sap: The milky sap from the branches and bark is used as a laxative; also in remedies for stomachache and bloating. Bark and Leaf: Used as laxative and for gonorrhea and venereal sores. Leaf and Flower: The leaves can be eaten, the flowers can either be boiled in water and eaten or boiled in tamarind (Tamarindus indica) juice and made into a salad to promote regular bowel movements and urine flow, as well as to control gas and phlegm. Flower: Used for treatment of asthma.

Notes

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The bark is used as a substitute for Holarrhena bark, for stomachache and colic; the root is used for fever, dysentery (with root of Cissampelos); and an unspecified plant part is used for tumors. In Indo-China the species is used as an astringent and alexiteric (Perry 1980).

Tests for the presence of alkaloids in this species were negative (Perry 1980).

References

Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Araceae (Arum family)

1. Amorphophallus Blume ex Decne

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson (= Amorphophallus campanulatus Decne.)

Names

Myanmar: wa-u-bin, wa-u-pin. Japanese: shinasoo. English: elephant yam, cobra plant.

Range

Paleotropics. Found only in Myanmar’s temperate regions; grows naturally.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Tuber: Used to prevent sagging belly in women and enlargement of the bladder. They are also used to trim the body and clear the complexion, to prevent palpitations in older people, and to stop the formation of excess fat and solidified fatty deposits in the body.

Note

In its genus, this species is considered one of the most effective medicinally and subsequently one of the most desired by international buyers.

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

2. Colocasia Schott

Colocasia antiquorum Schott

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The whole plant is used for snakebite; leaf juice is used for snakebite, breast pain and suppuration, as an abortifacient; the seed is used for inflammation, joint pains; the root is used as a stimulant, emetic, emmenagogue, for fever, leucoderma (powdered and mixed with honey); to promote digestion, regulate menstruation (in small doses); on wounds, for diarrhea (paste), and for snakebite. An unspecified plant part is used to stimulate phagocytosis; also for cholera. In Indo-China the plant is used as a remedy for intermittent fever, dropsy, and loss of appetite; the root is used for the same purpose (Perry 1980).

The essential oil contains a trace of camphor, and sesquiterpenes, ishwarene, ishwarone, and ishwarol The roots contain an alkaloid, aristolochine, a yellow bitter principle, isoaristolochic acid, and allantoin (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Aristolochia tagala Cham.

Names

English: Dutchman’s pipe, Indian birthwort.

Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don

Names

Myanmar: ka-nyut. English: fern asparagus.

Range

India and China. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Shan.

Conservation status

Data Deficient [DD] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Root: Used as diuretic and anthelmintic.

Notes

In India the root is used as an astringent and tonic (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the root is used as an antipyretic, bechic, diuretic, expectorant, nervine, stimulant, and tonic; also for constipation, cough, hemoptysis, dry throat, pertussis (Yunnan); and cooked with pork for a tonic (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Perry (1980) notes the medicinal use of this species in Yunnan. She also states that the species has uses similar to A. cochinchinensis.

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Asparagus officinalis L.

Names

Myanmar: kannyut, sani kamat (Mon). English: asparagus.

Range

Europe, Asia, North Africa. Not common in Upper Myanmar. Found in humid locations; cultivated in hilly and cooler regions.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Whole plant: Has cooling properties and a sweet taste. Leaves, stems, shoots, roots and fruits are all beneficial for humans. The plant is considered especially beneficial for new mothers, to fortify the blood and help prevent anemia. It is used to break up phlegm, as well as to control the gall bladder, external hemorrhaging, and vomiting of blood. Shoot: Eaten to eliminate gas and to strengthen the body. Shoot and Root: Considered especially useful for extra strength, either cooked on their own or incorporated into rice pudding with milk. Root: Bulbous, can be boiled to make a paste for external application as a remedy for inflamed joints, aches, and flatulence disorders. For urinary tract disorders and various liver and gall bladder diseases, the juice of the roots mixed with honey and/or milk is ingested. The juice mixed with an equal amount by weight of milk is consumed as a cure for long-standing kidney stones and gallstones. It is also taken as a cure for diseases caused by poisoning.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Medicinal uses of asparagus are also discussed in Perry (1980).

Reference

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985) as follows: The whole plant is used as a stomachic, sudorific, tonic, expectorant, diaphoretic, anticatarrhal; also considered a potential antifertility plant. Juice from fresh leaves, or decocted dry leaves, is used for itch, sores, and wounds. In India a decoction of the whole plant is used as an expectorant; a warm infusion as a sudorific (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

The reported chemical composition includes cineole and limonene; also palmitic acid, myristic acid, sesquiterpemne alcohol, dimethly ether, and pyrocaechic tannin (Perry 1980). Herbal extracts are phototoxic to Saccharomyces cerevisiae. “The aqueous extract is said to be efficacious as a vasodilator, sedative and hypotensive. Since it inhibits the sympatheric nervous system, it is used to relieve excitement and insomnia.” It is thought that the essential oil may be nearly pure borneol, or 75% camphor and 25% borneol (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

4. Carthamus L

Carthamus tinctorius L.

Names

Myanmar: hsu pan. English: false saffron, safflower, wild saffron.

Range

Origin thought to be the eastern Mediterranean. Currently known only in cultivation and as escapes. Found as a cultivar in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Considered bitter and sweet, with heating properties, can cause loose bowels but are known for promoting good vision, digestion, gall bladder function, and phlegm discharge. The leaves are consumed in a sour soup (fish or shrimp stock base, tamarind, and vegetables) to promote the flow of urine and to give vigor. Flower: Juice from the crushed flowers is taken to neutralize snake and scorpion venoms. Pulverized dried flowers are used as a remedy for jaundice. A mixture of crushed flowers and sugar is given to cure hemorrhoids and kidney stones. The boiled water extract of flowers is used to treat inflammation of nasal passages, as well as joint and muscle aches. A mixture of the flowers crushed with dan-gyi (Tanacetum cinerariifolium) leaves is applied to the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands to cure kidney stones. Seed: Known for imparting strength and energy. Pulverized to a powder, they are taken with milk to cure madness, as well as itches and rashes. The ash from burning a combination of the seeds and the bark from hsu byu (Thevetia peruviana) is mixed with jasmine oil and applied to the hair to promote growth and healthy texture. Root: Can be used as a diuretic.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

5. Chromolaena DC

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. (= Eupatorium odoratum L.)

Names

Myanmar: bezat, bizat, jamani-chon, taw-bizat. English: buttefly-weed, jack in the bush, siamweed.

Range

New World subtropics and tropics- Florida, Texas; Mexico; and West Indies. Pantropical weed. Widespread in Myanmar.

Use

Leaf: Used to treat dysentery.

Notes

In India the leaf is used to treat dysentery; also applied on fresh cuts and wounds to stop bleeding (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). A pharmacological profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993).

An aqueous ethanol extract of the leaves of C. odorata were found to have antifungal activity. Chemical analysis of the extract and fractions showed the presence of biologically active constituents including some coumarines,flavonoids, phenols, tannins, and sterols. No toxic effect was noticed in the mice treated. (Ngono Ngane et al. 2006). Ethanol extracts of leaves of this species also showed antibacterial activites, inhibiting the growth of Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhimurium. The extract also was shown to reduce parasite number: antiprotozoal and cytotoxicity assays were done against Trichomonas vaginalis and Blastocystis hominis. Preliminary phytochemical screening showed the chemical compositon of the extracts to contain flavonoids, saponins, tannins and steroids (Vital and Rivera 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

6. Cyanthillium Blume

Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob. (= Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.)

Uses

Stem and Leaf: A decoction made from these parts is used for menstrual disorders. Root: Used as an antipyretic, analgesic, and tonic.

Notes

In Indian the leaf is used on cuts and to control vomiting; the root is used to check vomiting, for fever in children, on pimples, as an abortifacient, also for urinary problems, amoebic dysentery and other digestive disorders (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Medicinal uses in other Asian countries follows: In China the plant is used to treat indigestion and swollen legs; in Taiwan the root is used to relieve pain in the chest; on the Malay Peninsula a decoction of the leaves is drunk to cure venereal diseases in women; in Indonesia the roots, either pounded in water or in decoction, are used as a remedy for leucorrhea, anemia in women and children, and during parturition; in the Philippines a decoction of the roots and leaves is used as an emollient, and leaves are heated and rubbed on the throat to relieve a bad cough; and in Guam the plant is used as a remedy for asthenic fever. Also, in Indo-China, Indonesia, and the Philippines, the plant is considered a diuretic and febrifuge; an infusion is taken to relieve anuria and blennorrhea and administered at parturition; a decoction of the whole plant is bechic, cleansing, and used to treat pulmonary diseases and scabies (Perry 1980).

The leaves contain a bitter principle; the plant has no alkaloid, but a white crystalline substance, apparently of glycoside nature, has been extracted. Also, an extract of the leaves has been shown to have antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

9. Emilia Cass

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC.

The plant has a hypoglycemic property (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The root contains an essential oil, a substance suggesting salicylic acid, and a bitter glycoside (darutosdie). Also, extracts are said to have antiviral, hypoglycemic, and insecticidal properties (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

14. Tagetes L

Tagetes erecta L.

Names

Myanmar: dewali-pan, kala-pan. English: African marigold, Aztec marigold, marigold.

Range

Mexico and Central America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used as an analgesic and antiseptic.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The leaf is applied to carbuncles ad boils; leaf juice is used for earache; the flower is used as a remedy for eye diseases and ulcers; flower juice is used for bleeding piles; flowers are also taken as a blood purifier. Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). Here the leaf is used to treat sores and ulcers; the flower heads are decocted for colds, conjunctivitis, cough, mastitis, mumps, and sore eyes; they are also cooked with chicken liver to improve vision.

Reference

Nordal (1963).

15. Tanacetum L

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip. (= Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Vis.)

Names

Myanmar: hsay gandamar. English: dancing daisy, pyrethrum.

Range

Subtropical, temperate. In Myanmar, prefers temperate climates and can be cultivated at up to 1065–2135 m in altitude; thrives in Chin State, Shan State, Kachin State, Kokang area, Wa area, Naga hills, Mogok, Kyatpyin and Pyin Oo Lwin.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Stimulates appetite and heart functioning. Leaf: Crushed and mixed with black pepper, they are taken for urination problems. They are also used to treat cracked lips, gonorrhea, vomiting, and bleeding. Flower: Antiparasitic; used in pesticides and repellents effective against the mosquito vectors of dengue hemorrhagic fever and vectors of other infectious diseases.

Notes

The species is used as an insecticide. The old Chinese use of the genus Chrysanthemum was to treat “liver weakness”, clarify vision, and act as a circulatory tonic. The present use is to “benefit the blood”; treat minor infection; and for digestive, circulatory, and nervous disorders as well as for menstrual disorders and night blindness (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Basellaceae (Malabar Spinach family)

1. Basella L

Basella alba L. (= Basella rubra L.)

Names

Myanmar: kin peint, ginbeik. English: Indian spinach.

Range

Asia and Africa. Found growing naturally in Myanmar’s hot regions (such as Bago and Mandalay).

Uses

Whole plant: A decoction is used to alleviate labor during childbirth. Flower: Used as an antidote to poisons. Leaf: Juice and paste from the crushed leaves is applied to sores to promote healing. The juice is also ingested to relieve diarrhea, fever, and urinary tract infections. Root: Boiled in water and consumed to alleviate vomiting associated with the gall bladder problems.

Note

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Duke and Ayensu (1985), Forest Department (1999), Manandhar and Manandhar (2002).

Berberidaceae (Barberry family)

1. Berberis L

Berberis nepalensis Spreng.

Names

Myanmar: khaing-shwe-wa, khine-shwe-war. English: mahonia.

Range

Eastern Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Fruit: Berries used as diuretic.

Notes

In India the fruit is employed as a diuretic and demulcent, also edible; the root “extract yields a product ‘rasaut’ with the same properties as Berberis.” (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). A decoction of the bark is used for eyedrops to treat inflammation of the eyes (Manandhar and Manandhar 2002). The fruit is used in the treatment of dysentery (Chopra et al. 1986).

Berberine, present in the rhizomes, has been shown to have a marked antibacterial effect and is used as a bitter tonic. It is used orally in the treatment of various enteric infections, especially bacterial dysentery. Berberine has also been shown to have antitumor activity (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Betulaceae (Birch family)

1. Alnus Mill

Alnus nepalensis D.Don

Names

Myanmar: hyang, mai-bau, nbau, ning-bau, yang-bau. English: alder.

Range

Eastern Himalayas and western China. In Myanmar, found in Chin and Kachin.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Bark: Used as an astringent.

Notes

In India, the bark is used to treat dysentery and stomachache; the leaf is employed on cuts and wounds; and the root is used for diarrhea (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Bignoniaceae (Catalpa family)

1. Markhamia Seem. ex Baill

Markhamia stipulata (Wall.) Seem.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

In Indo-China and the Philippines the bark of the trunk and root are used in the same way as in Myanmar. On the Malay Peninsula the bark is used for dysentery. A decoction of the leaves is drunk for stomach disorders, rheumatism, and wounds; and is made into hot fomentations to treat cholera, fever, and rheumatic swellings. The cooked leaves are used as poultices for various ailments during and after childbirth; also for dysentery, and to relieve headache and toothache. In Indonesia the bitter bark serves as a remedy for stomach problems, and also as a tonic and appetizer. Additionally, the bark is chewed as a depurative, especially after parturition. The flowers are used as a remedy for inflammation of the eyes. The pith serves as a styptic. In the Philippines the juice from the crushed bark is rubbed on the back to relieve the ache accompanying malaria (Perry 1980).

Oroxylin, isolated from the bark and seeds, has been found to be a mixture of three flavones, baicalein, 6-methylbaicalein, and chrysin. Oroxylin-A consists of phtalic and benzoic acids, and phloroglucinol (Perry 1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

4. Millingtonia L.f

Millingtonia hortensis L.f.

Names

Myanmar: mai-long-ka-hkam, sum-tung-hpraw, htamone-chort. English: jasmine tree, Indian cork tree.

Range

Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam; commonly cultivated throughout India, Indonesia, and Malaysia, occasionally naturalized. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar, except in cold areas.

Use

Leaf: Boiled in water and eaten, or made into a stir-fry, for menstruation and hypertension. Flower and Shoot: Drinking a soup made with the flowers or eating the shoots will cure hypertension and heart palpitations. Root: Taking the paste of the root after adding salt or sugar will cure heart palpitations and dizziness; drawing circles around the eyes with a paste made from the root and bark will cure sore eyes; applying a paste made from the root will cure gas disorders; drinking the liquid in which the fresh root has been boiled with jaggery will cure vitiligo; rubbing a paste of the root or bark onto the tongue will cure alcoholic intoxication.

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

5. Stereospermum Cham

Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC.

Names

English: fragrant padri-tree, padri, yellow snakeroot.

Range

India to the Malay Peninsula.

Use

Leaf, Flower, and Root: Used as a febrifuge.

Notes

In India the bark is tonic, diuretic; used for stomachache, cholera, malaria, and liver problems. The root is used for chest and brain afflictions, also intermittent and puerperal fevers (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The leaves, flowers, and roots are used as a febrifuge in Indo-China (except Vietnam) (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Stereospermum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex Dillwyn) Mabb. (= Stereospermum tetragonum DC.)

Names

Myanmar: hingut-pho, hingut-po, kywe-ma-gyo-lein, sin-gwe, thakut-pho, thakut-po, thande, than-tat, than-tay. English: trumpet flower, yellow snake tree.

Range

China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widespread in Myanmar.

Use

Leaf, Flower, Root: Used as febrifuge.

Note

In India the leaf is used for dyspepsia; the root for asthma, cough, and excessive thirst (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

6. Tecoma Juss

Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth (= Tecomella stans Seem)

Names

Myanmar: sein-takyu. English: trumpet-bush, yellow-bells, yellow-elder, yellow trumpet-bush.

Range

New World tropics.

Uses

Bark: Utilized as an antisyphilitic and as an antidote in alcohol poisoning. Leaf: Used for hypoglycemic properties.

Notes

Reported uses of the species include stomachache, alcoholism, atony, biliousness, diabetes, diuretic, dysentery, gastritis, inappetence, indigestion, intoxicant, pain, stomachic, syphilis, tonic, and vermifuge (Duke 2009). In India the root is used to treat scorpion sting; also snake and rat bite (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Pods of T. stans have been shown to contain tecomine and tecostanine, which have the effect of lowering blood sugar levels (Lan et al. 1998). Research has provided evidence that the main antidiabetic effect of the aqueous extract is due to intestinal a-glucosidase inhibition by decreasing the postprandial hyper-glycaemia peak. Additionally, the aqueous extract sub-chronic administration was found to reduce triglycerides and cholesterol without modifying fasting glucose (Anguilar-Santamaría et al. 2009).

References

Nordal (1963), Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan (1967).

Bixaceae (Annatto family)

1. Bixa L

Bixa orellana L.

Names

Myanmar: thinbaw-tidin. English: achiote, annatto, lipstick-tree.

Range

Tropical America.

Uses

Seed: Used as a febrifuge and astringent.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity, and dosages, are discussed by Germosèn-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). The red dye from the seed arils contains a mixture of stereoisomers of bixin, a C-24 diapocarotenoid [having purgative action (Lan et al. 1998)]; and, the leaf-oil is a rich source of numerous terpenes (Mors et al. 2000).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Boraginaceae (Heliotrope family)

1. Cordia L

Cordia dichotoma G.Forst.

Names

Uses

Whole plant: Used as diuretic. A decoction used in treating gonorrhea; one is also used for the treatment of diabetes by Kawkareik inhabitants. Leaf: Applied to boils, ulcers, and wounds.

Notes

In India the whole plant is used for ulcers, boils, insect bites, and throat infection; the leaf for insect and reptile bites (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the plant is widely used for poulticing, boils, carbuncles, and herpes; also anti-cancer (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines.

The species contains an important anti-cancer ingredient, indicine-N-oxide, which shows significant activity against the P388 leukemia. “It is also active against the B16 melanoma, L1210 leukemia, and Walker 256” and “in 1976, no negative histopathologyic findings indicative of the heptotoxicology usually associated with pyrrolizidine alkaloids, had been demonstrated for indicine-N-oxide.” Also, acetyl indicine, indicinine, and indicinine have been reported for this species (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan (1967), Perry (1980).

Brassicaceae (Mustard family)

1. Brassica L

Brassica oleracea L.

Names

Myanmar: kobi-dok. English: cabbage, kohlrabi, wild cabbage.

Range

Native to western Europe; cultivated worldwide.

Conservation status

Data Deficient [DD] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Leaf: Used in the treatment of skin diseases as well as in diuretic and laxative preparations. Seed: Used to promote appetite and digestion; also used as a diuretic and laxative.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature for this plant are given in Fleming (2000).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

2. Sinapis L

Sinapis alba L. (= Brassica alba (L.) Rabenh.)

Names

Myanmar: chying-hkrang-ahpraw, antamray, rai baitine. English: Chinese mustard, white mustard.

Range

North Africa, Europe, Southwest and Central Asia; widely introduced. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Hot and bitter in taste with heating properties, effective, aids digestion, calms the phlegm, cures vomiting of blood, passing of blood, leprosy, itching and rashes. Seed: A paste made from mixing the seeds together with kunsar-gamone (Alpinia galanga) can be rubbed on to cure inflammation of the joints. Oil: A small amount of the oil can be poured into the ear to cure earaches. Cook oil, the juice from mayoe (Calotropis procera) leaves, and some turmeric rhizome together and filter out the oil, which can then be rubbed on to cure skin diseases like ringworm, and itching. Cooking oil with menthol will produce a rub to use for children getting stomachaches, catching chest colds, and coughs and colds. The oil can be rubbed on directly to afflicted areas to cure enlarged spleen, cysts and tumors, edema, hemorrhoids, flatulence and shooting abdominal pains. Applying a small amount of the oil into the nostrils at bedtime will cure sinusitis. The oil can be applied on the nape of the neck to cure a stiff neck or across the bridge of the nose and along the brow line to cure aching eyes. An ointment can be made by mixing one part of mustard oil and one part of sesame oil with mountain goat or wild goat lard, which can be used to cure numbness, muscular spasms, and cramps.

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Burseraceae (Gumbo Limbo family)

1. Garuga Roxb

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: chinyok, mai-kham, sinyok, taesap. English: garuga.

Range

China, East Pakistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaya, and the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Rakhine.

Use

Juice: Used to treat asthma.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: Juice from the stem is used in an eye-drop for opaque conjunctiva; leaf juice mixed with honey is used for asthma; the fruit is used as a stomachic. In Indo-China the bark is used with honey to treat asthma (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Calophyllaceae (Calophyllum family)

1. Calophyllum L

Calophyllum inophyllum L.

Names

Myanmar: ponenyet. English: Alexandrian laurel, Indian laurel, laurel-wood.

Range

Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australasia, and Pacific. Found growing naturally in lower Myanmar, but also thrives well in coastal areas with hot and wet climates. It is cultivated in some areas.

Conservation status

Lower Risk/least concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Whole plant: Preparations made from the five parts used to regulate bile and phlegm, as well as to bind the blood. Leaf: Water from soaking the leaves is used for eye drops to alleviate burning. Bark: Liquid from boiling the bark is taken to relieve constipation and to stop hemorrhaging. Sap extracted from the bark is used to compound medicines for treating wounds and sores. Seed: Oil extracted from the seeds is used to make remedies for aches, pains, gonorrhea, leprosy, and other skin diseases.

Note

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

2. Mesua L

Mesua ferrea L.

Names

Myanmar: guntgaw, gau-gau, maiting (My) (Kachin), kaw-ta-nook (Kayin), ar ganui (Mon), jai-nool (Mon), kam kan (Mai) (Shan). English: Ceylon ironwood, cobra’s saffron, Indian rose-chestnut, ironwood tree.

Range

Tropical Asia, India. Found throughout Myanmar, but especially in Tanintharyi Division, growing naturally in tropical evergreen forests up to altitudes of 1065 m; also grown in gardens for ornamental purposes.

Uses

Whole plant: Flowers, stamens, seeds, roots, bark and oils are made into preparations to support digestion, improve complexion, cure blood disorders, reduce edema, neutralize poisoning, and alleviate heart and bladder pains. Leaf: Used to treat snakebites. Bark, Root: Used in tonics taken for strength. Flower: Used as an astringent. A mixture of the flowers with butter and sugar is taken for burning sensations in the body and for hemorrhoids. Flowers are used in medicines that neutralize toxins for cases of poisoning and for venomous bites and stings; dried, they are used in treatments for coughs, stomach problems, and excessive perspiration and phlegm. The anthers are used in remedies for fevers and excessive menstrual bleeding. A mixture of crushed anthers and rock sugar rolled with top oil (liquid that rises to top when slow-cooking substances, such as butter, etc.) is used to treat hemorrhoids and cracked skin on the soles of the feet. Ground together with thanakha (Hesperethusa crenulata) they form a paste used topically on boils and other skin conditions. Seed: Their oil is used as an ointment to treat inflammation of joints and as a remedy for scabies, eczema, and other skin problems, including infected sores.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of this species on the Malay Peninsula and in Indonesia.

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Ministry of Health (2001).

Cannabaceae (Hemp family)

1. Cannabis L

Cannabis sativa L.

Names

Myanmar: bhang, se-gyauk. English: grass, gallow grass, marihuana, pot, red-root, soft hemp, true hemp.

Range

Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Whole plant: Intoxicant, analgesic, sedative, and anodyne.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Perry (1980) discusses the general uses of the species in eastern and southeastern Asia (including Myanmar). Especially in China and Indo-China, all parts of the plant are used. The seeds are used as tonic, alterative, emmenagogue, laxative, demulcent, diuretic, anththelmintic, narcotic, and anodyne; also they are prescribed in fluxes, for post partum problems, obstinate vomiting, and used externally on eruptions, ulcers, wounds, and favus. The plant is also “considered of great value in treating tetanus. It is a true sedative of the stomach, used to treat dyspepsia with painful symptom, cancers, ulcers; also to treat migraine, neuralgia, and rheumatism. After special preparation, the seeds are prescribed for uterine prolapse, to aid parturition, and as a febrifuge.”

The flowering twigs contain an essence of sesquiterpene, cannabin, solid alcohol, and hydrate of cannabin. Contents of the seeds include protein, lipids, choline, trigonlline, xylose, inosite, many acids and enzymes, phosphates, and phytosterols. Two active substances found in the resin are cannabinol and cannabidiol, both toxic (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Cannaceae (Canna family)

1. Canna L

Canna indica L.

Names

Myanmar: budatharana, ar-do, adalut.English: canna, Indian shot, Queesland arrowroot.

Range

Tropical America. Found growing throughout Myanmar; also cultivated.

Uses

Sap: Aids in regulating bowels and healing sores. Rhizome: Employed as a diaphoretic, demulcent, and to treat fever and dropsy. Thinly sliced, dried, made into a preserve with jaggery (sugar made from juice of the toddy palm, Borassus flabellifer, inflorescence), and stored in a glass jar after adding the powder of five kinds of spices (names not specified in Agricultural Corporation 1980); then ball the size of a betel (Piper betle) nut eaten every morning and evening to treat male and female disorders, imbalance in the blood, diarrhea, menopause symptoms, insufficient blood circulation, hemorrhoids, impotence, poor complexion, loss of strength, backache, general aches and pains, and jaundice. About half a cup of the liquid in which the rhizome has been boiled together with raw sugar, taken once in the morning and one at night, used to treat menstrual disorders, stiffness in the ligaments and tendons, bloated stomach, and urinary tract disease. Flower and Fruit: Young flowers and fruits, lightly boiled in water and eaten with a dip or in a salad, used to treat too little urine and difficulty in passing urine; also to treat a fever. Eating a curry into which liquid from boiling the flowers has been added during cooking is used to treat a stiff neck, stiffness in the fingers and toes, and backache, as well as mucus in the stool, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. Root: Taking about a quarter cup of the liquid in which the roots have been boiled after adding some roasted salt, used to treat fever, sore throat, and mucus in the respiratory system; about a half cup of liquid in which the roots have been boiled together with jaggery, used to treat edema, body aches, and sharp spasmodic pain in the bowels.

Note

Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Capparaceae (Caper family)

1. Capparis L

Capparis flavicans Kurz

Bark: A paste from grinding the bark together with paranawar (Boerhavia diffusa) root is taken to cure chronic sores and boils. Leaf: Crushed, mixed with water and warmed, is applied to areas with aches and pain. The juice from the crushed leaves can be mixed in equal amounts with crushed betel (Piper betle) leaves and butter and the mixture is taken to cure inflammation of the joints. The leaves can be pickled and eaten with a fish paste or fish sauce dip or as a salad to cure gas and digestion problems. Flower: Pickled and eaten as a stomachic. Root: Boiled in water until reduced to one fourth, and taken to treat diabetes and kidney stones. If cane sugar is added to this liquid and drunk, it can cure inflammation of the bladder and kidney stones. Also used to treat high fevers.

Notes

In China the leaf is used as a tonic, stomachic, resolvent; also used for dysentery, headache, and stomachache (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In Taiwan a decoction of the stem and leaves is used to treat dysentery, headache, and stomachache; in China the leaves are considered to be stomachic; in Indo-China the leaves are used as a tonic and resolutive; in the Soloman Islands the liquid from the bark macerated with water is used to treat constipation and heated leaves are applied as a remedy for earache (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents of the bark include lupeol (a triterpene) and beta-sitosterol. (Perry 1980, Duke and Ayensu 1985). The leaves contain calcium, phosphorus, iron, beta-carotene equivalent, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Caricaceae (Papaya family)

1. Carica L

Carica papaya L.

Names

Myanmar: thinbaw, sang-hpaw, shanghpaw, shang hap-wsi (Kachin), mansi (Chin), crot-kyeei, hla-crote kyee (Mon), mak-sang-hpaw (Shan). English: papaw, papaya, pawpaw.

Range

Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Data Deficient [DD] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Known for binding and heating properties, the fruit, seeds, sap, leaves, and roots are used. Leaf: A mixture of the juice from crushed leaves and a small amount of opium is used to relieve muscle stiffness. Leaves blanched in hot water or wilted over heat are applied to affected body parts to relieve aches and pains of menstruation. Roasted leaves with a fish paste or fish sauce dip are prepared in a lepet [tea leaves steamed, pressed, fermented, mixed with oil (usually peanut oil); this added to salad] salad to alleviate buzzing in the ear and other ear problems. Fruit: Sweet and easily digestible ripe fruit stimulates hunger, facilitates digestion, promotes healthy urinary function, increases phlegm, benefits the heart, cleanses the blood, calms the bile, and protects against urinary diseases and gallstones. It promotes health and longevity, and protects against diseases. Soaking the fruit in water and taking the liquid three times daily alleviates enlargement of the spleen; eating the ripe fruit also alleviates enlargement of the spleen, as well as enlargement of the liver and hemorrhoids. Nearly ripe but still firm fruit is eaten cooked or in a salad to encourage healthy bowel and urinary functioning. A small amount of powder made from the dried, young fruit is used to alleviate chronic diarrhea. Juice from cut green fruit is applied to scorpion sting to neutralize the poison. The young fruit dipped in salt is eaten as a remedy for diphtheria. Children are given a small amount of the fruit sap together with milk or for indigestion. The milky sap from the green fruit is applied to relieve itching, rashes, ringworm, and other skin problems, including sores caused by venereal disease. The sap, which is also considered the best medicine for improving the function of many parts of the body, such as bone, marrow, and muscle, is used to treat stomach and intestinal pains from ulcers and other conditions. Seed: Ingested in amounts proportionate to the patient’s age, used for deworming. Root: Preparations made from the roots are used to regulate menstruation.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999). A pharmacog- nostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

The latex of Carica papaya contains chymopapain, an enzyme which does not produce fever (non pyrogenic), and which dissolves protein (proteolytic). In modern medicine, the drug “chymodiactin”, obtained from the chymopapain-containing latex of the plant, is administered as an injection into the center of a protruding disk in the spine, in order to relieve the symptoms of pressure from “herniated lumbar intervertebral disks”, i.e., to relieve the symptoms of pressure on nerve ends in the lower back. The latex of Carica papaya also contains another proteolytic enzyme, papain. It is used as a prominent ingredient in “panafil” ointment, a pharmaceutical preparation which helps to debride a wound (to digest dead and infected tissue, while leaving healthy tissue unaffected) and maintain a clean wound base, and to promote healing. In the preparation, the papain is combined with urea, which activates its digestive function (Bertran 1997).

The leaves contain an alkaloid, carpaine, which in small doses slows down the heart and reduces blood pressure, whereas in higher doses produces vasoconstriction; and that carpaine has spasmolytic action on smooth muscle, as well as being a strong amoebicide (Mors et al. 2000). Seeds and leaves of Carica papaya also contain glucotropaeolin, a bound toxin (Lan et al. 1998). Uses of this plant in the Upper Amazon region, including the eating of its grated unripe fruit with aspirin to induce an abortion, are given by Castner et al. (1998).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Caryophyllaceae (Pink family)

1. Vaccaria Wolf

Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert (= Saponaria vaccaria L.)

Names

English: cowcockle, cowherb, cow soapwort.

Range

Asia and Europe.

Use

Leaf: Used to treat skin diseases.

Notes

In China the fruits and seeds are considered to be vulnerary, discutient, styptic; anodyne to treat cuts, to draw thorns from wounds, to apply to boils and scabies; and, used internally, a galactagogue. The shoot, leaves, flowers, and root have the same properties as the seeds (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents as of the seeds include saponin and a carbohydrate, lactosin (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Casuarinaceae (Casuarina family)

1. Casuarina L

Casuarina equisetifolia L.

Names

Myanmar: kabwi, pinle-kabwe, pinle-tinyu. English: Australian pine, beefwood, casuarina, common ironwood.

Range

Tropical Asia to Australia and Oceania. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Used to treat chronic diarrhea and dysentery.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Celastraceae (Staff-tree family)

1. Celastrus L

Celastrus paniculatus Willd.

Names

Myanmar: hpak-ko-suk, myin-gaung-nayaung, myin-gondaing, myin-lauk-yaung, new-ni. English: black oil plant.

Range

India to southern China south (not in Borneo) to Australia and New Caledonia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.

Uses

Leaf: Used as an opium antidote. Seed: Used as a stimulant.

Notes

In India the bark is used for wounds, cough, colds, and fever; the leaf and root for headache; and the seed for piles and digestive trouble (oil), rheumatic pain, and as a stimulant (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the oil from the seeds is used to treat beri-beri; in Indonesia the leaves are used in treating dysentery; and in the Philippines the pulverized seeds are employed as a nerve stimulant, and to treat rheumatism and paralysis (Perry 1980).

Reported chemical constituents include phytosterol, celastrol, a resinous substance in the aril of the seed, and a semi-solid fat. Two alkaloids, celastrine and paniculatin, have been isolated from the oil cake, but were not found in the oil expressed from the seeds (Perry 1980).

References

Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

1. Gloriosa L

Gloriosa superba L.

Names

Myanmar: hsee mee-tauk. English: climbing lily, flame lily, superb lily.

Range

Tropical Africa and Asia. Grows naturally all over Myanmar, but more common in the temperate regions.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Bitter, astringent and sharp in taste with heating properties, this plant is used to control flatulence and phlegm, promote urine production, treat bladder conditions, poisoning, leprosy, hemorrhoids, bloating and lung problems. Leaf: Powdered leaves are applied to wounds and sores to kill germs and promote healing. They are also ingested with jaggery to expel roundworms and threadworms. Mixed with lime juice, the leaf powder is used as a swab for the inside of the ear or as drops for earaches and ear infections. Root: The tuber serves as an abortifacient, and is used to treat ulcers, leprosy, and piles. Washed thoroughly, the tubers are crushed together with water, and the resulting mixture is applied to the navel and over the uterus area to induce fast and easy labor in childbirth. Tuber paste is also applied to relieve bruises and inflammation. The liquid from powdered tubers soaked in water is ingested to cure gonorrhea. (Note: Because the tubers contain a powerful poison, they should be used only under the direction of experienced and able physicians).

Note

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Combretaceae (West Indian Almond family)

1. Combretum Loefl

Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps (= Quisqualis indica L.)

Names

Myanmar: dawe-hmaing-nwe, tanah-pacow-kawaing angine (Mon), mawk nang-nang, nang-mu (Shan). English: Chinese honeysuckle, Rangoon creeper.

Range

Southeast Asia to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. Grows naturally in the hot and humid areas of Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Effective against dysentery. Utilized in the treatment of diabetes; lightly boiled in water, eaten in a salad to quickly alleviate dysentery with mucus or blood. Liquid from boiling leaves is taken to relieve indigestion and shooting pains. Seed: Two or three are crushed and taken with honey for deworming. They are also eaten as a remedy for severe illness accompanied by diarrhea.

Notes

In China the fruit is primarily used as a vermifuge; also for abdominal distention, dyspepsia, and marasmus, leucorrhea; macerated in oil, it is applied to skin ailments due to parasites; the ripe seed is roasted and used to treat diarrhea and fever (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In India the seed is used as an anthelmintic (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Dagar and Singh (1999) describe indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India).

Extracts show antitumor and cathartic activity (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

2. Terminalia L

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: hroirwk, mai-hen, mai-mahen, mai-naw, makalaw, tawitho, thiag-riang, thit-seint. English: belleric, myrobalan.

Range

India to Indo-China south through Indonesia. In Myanmar found in Bago, Magway, and Mandalay.

Uses

The flowers, bark, fruit, and seed kernel are used in medications to relieve constipation, treat heart disease, cure eye infections, strengthen hair, protect the voice from deterioration, and clear blood irregularities, as well as to relieve sore throat and coughing. However, ingesting too much is known to cause vomiting and dizziness. Flower: Liquid from boiling the flowers is taken for spleen enlargement, excessive bowel movements, and chest pains. Bark: Made into a paste, it is applied topically as a remedy for vitiligo and taken orally for anemia. Liquid from boiling the bark is held in the mouth to relieve toothaches and gum inflammation. Fruit: Dried and used to treat cough and eye diseases. Applied topically to circles under the eyes, the fruit paste is used to relieve aching. A mixture of honey and the paste made from the fruit skin is licked to cure asthma and coughs. Powdered fruit mixed with cane sugar is taken daily for impotence. The fruit itself is eaten as a tonic to give strength and as a remedy for hemorrhoids, edema, leprosy, diarrhea, shooting stomach pain, and headaches. Seed: A paste made from the seed kernel mixed with alcohol is taken to relieve pain from urination and from kidney stones. The warmed kernel paste is applied topically to reduce swelling and to relieve aches and pains caused by injuries.

Notes

In India the bark is used as a diuretic; also for high fever, cold dysuria, sunstroke, cholera (with the bark of two other species), snakebite (with the bark of one other species); the resin is used for cramps; the gum is a demulcent, purgative, and soothes itches. The fruit is used as an astringent, brain tonic, for measles (with plant parts from two other species), cough, asthma, stomach and liver disorders, piles, leprosy, dropsy, fever; also, half-ripe fruit is purgative, but ripe fruit has the opposite property. The oil is used on rheumatic pain; fruit pulp (with honey) is used on opthalmia; and the seeds are used for gastric problems (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the species is used as an astringent and tonic, as a purgative when green, and as a narcotic (in large doses). In Indonesia the ripe fruit, with seed removed, is roasted and powdered, then used to protect the navel after the umbilical cord has fallen off, also part of a complicated medicine to treat women’s illnesses (Perry 1980).

The fresh fruit yields glucose, tannin, and three glycosidal fractions (Perry 1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Terminalia catappa L.

Names

Myanmar: badan, banda. English: Indian almond, Malabar almond, tropical almond, West Indian almond.

Range

Tropical Asia to Northern Australia and Polynesia, and cultivated in many places. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Whole plant: Astringent, also used in treating dysentery. Nordal lists this plant as having medicinal value, but does not give use(s).

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of the species in East and Southeast Asia are discussed in Perry (1980). Some of these uses follow: In Indonesia the leaves are used as a dressing for swollen rheumatic joints; in the Philippines, the red leaves are used as a vermifuge, sap of the young leaves is cooked with oil from the kernel to treat leprosy, leaves mixed with oil is rubbed on the breast to relieve pain, or heated and applied to rheumatic an numb parts of the body; in the Solomon Islands leaves are used to treat yaws, bark and root bark are used for bilious fevers, diarrhea, dysentery, and as remedy for sores and abscesses; in Indonesia, the plant it is used as a mild laxative and a galactagogue for women.

Unripe fruits of T. catappa contain tannin and terminalin, which are toxic to cattle and sheep when eaten, causing kidney necrosis (Lan et al. 1998). The bark is rich in tannin; oil from the kernel contains olein, palmitin, and stearin; from fruit grown in Puerto Rico, myristic and linoleic acids were extrated; also, the leaves show some antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Names

Myanmar: hpan-khar-thee, mai-mak-na, mai-man-nah, mana, panga, phan-kha, thankaungh. English: myrobalan.

1. Commelina L

Commelina paludosa Blume (= Commelina obliqua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don)

Name

English: dayflower.

Range

Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Root: Used to treat vertigo, fevers, and bilious afflictions.

Reference

Nordal (1963).

2. Tradescantia L

Tradescantia spathacea Sw. (= Rhoeo discolor (L’Hér.) Hance)

Names

Myanmar: mi-gwin-gamone. English: boat lily, Moses in a cradle, oyster plant.

Range

Southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and West Indies. Grows throughout Myanmar; cultivated.

Uses

Whole plant: One teaspoon of the liquid obtained from pounding the plant mixed with a little sugar (taken three times a day) used to cure coughs and loosen mucus. Stem and Leaf: Liquid obtained from boiling crushed stems and leaves down to 1/3, together with a little raw sugar (1 tablespoon taken three times a day), used to treat vomiting of blood. Leaf: Used to remedy burns, scalds, and dysentery.

Notes

In China the plant is used as a poultice on swellings and wounds; the flower is used to treat dysentery, enterorrhagia, and hemoptysis (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Convolvulaceae (Morning Glory family)

1. Convolvulus L

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Uses

Sweet, bitter, and astringent, with heating properties; used to expel and cure flatulence disorders, as well as to treat leprosy. Whole plant: Shoots are made into a soup with chicken bones or din-gyi (Oroxylum indicum) for urinary problems. The juice is consumed with milk and sugar for kidney stones. It is also used to make medicines to treat eye diseases, flatulence, and chest pain. Root: Bark from the root is crushed, mixed with milk, and taken as a laxative. A mixture of roots, ginger, and black pepper is given for leprosy, edema, and male diseases.

Notes

The medicinal use of this species in India is discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). In Indo-China an infusion of the roots and seeds is used as a purgative (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.

Names

Myanmar: kazun-galay, kazun yoe-n, kazun-ywet, ye-kazun. English: Chinese waterspinach, rabbit greens, swamp morning-glory, waterspinach.

Range

Native to central and south China. Widespread in Myanmar, where it is found growing in freshwater ditches, streams, ponds, and paddy field; and is also grown as a cultivated plant.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Leaf: Sweet with cooling properties, stimulates lactation, protects against germs found in water, works as an expectorant, and neutralizes poisons. Leaves are used to treat burning, thirst, and fevers associated with urinary diseases, as well as to treat wounds caused by burns. For dysentery, they are cooked and eaten. Crushed together with equal amounts of gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) leaves, tamarind (Tamarindus indica) leaves, and fine rice powder, they are used to make a poultice placed above the pubic region to induce urination in cases of difficulty urinating when the bladder is full; the same poultice is used to stop excessive menstrual bleeding. Together with gourd leaves, they are soaked in water and applied to chronic sores. Liquid from the boiled leaves is taken for diarrhea and indigestion; boiled together with ripe tamarind (Tamarindus indica) fruit and salt, they are given as a cure for kidney stones, as well as for all other urinary diseases.

Notes

The leaves are considered a good source of minerals and vitamins, especially carotene. Hentriacontane, sitosterol, and sitosterol glycoside have been separated from the lipoids (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Ipomoea hederifolia L. (= Ipomoea coccinea L.)

Names

Myanmar: mat-lay. English: red morning-glory, star ipomoea.

Range

Native range the Americas. In Myanmar, found in Yangon.

Use

Crassulaceae (Air Plant family)

1. Bryophyllum Salisb

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken (= Bryophyllum calycinum Salisb.; Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.)

Names

Myanmar: ywet-kya-pin-bauk. English: air plant, floppers, leaf of life, life plant.

Range

Old World tropics; exact origin unknown. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Leaf: Used to treat alopecia. Apply leaf juice to areas affected by impetigo, erysipelas and boils to treat sores. Roasted and stuck on the wound to stop the flow of blood and to promote healing. Roasted and stuck onto contusions to alleviate and heal inflammation. Crushing one or two leaves together with a bit of pepper and taking the mixture orally will treat retention of urine and other symptoms caused by hemorrhoids and venereal diseases. Crushing the leaf and taking the resulting juice will help treat cholera. Applying the juice of the leaf will heal dislocations, knotted muscles, and burns. Crushed and placed over eyes to treat eye ailments. Juice from the leaf together with rock sugar to treat blood in the urine and dysentery. Juice from the leaf can be ground together with salt and pressed into a scorpion bite to neutralize the poison.

Notes

Crushed leaves are cooling and used as a disinfectant by indigenous cultures. From southern China to Guam, they are used on suppurating boils, wounds, skin diseases, burns, scalds, corns, and also (with friction) for rheumatism, neuralgia, and pain. Leaves are placed on the forehead for headaches, and on the chest for cough and pain. They are mixed with leaves from other species for a poultice applied to the abdomen for bowl troubles. Similar uses are recorded from the Philippines. Juice from heated leaves and stems is squeezed on body areas infected with scabies (Perry 1980). In India the leaf is used for acidity and other gastric trouble; also on wounds and insect bites (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). Mors et al. (2000) discuss the immunosuppressive effect of extracts of this species in the form of an inhibitory action on human lymphocyte proliferation. The “active constituent is bryophylline, a substance used to treat intestinal troubles caused by bacteria” (Perry 1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Cucurbitaceae (Melon family)

1. Benincasa Savi

Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (= Benincasa cerifera Savi)

Names

Myanmar: kyauk-pha-yon, lun-tha, pora-mat. English: ash pumpkin, wax gourd, white gourd.

Range

Tropical Asia. Cultivated all over Myanmar up to altitudes of 1220 m.

Uses

Known for a sweet and slightly salty taste, giving strength and controlling bile, the flowers, seeds, roots and especially the fruits are used in medicinal preparations. Flower: Crushed and ingested as a cure for cholera. Fruit: Has restorative properties important in the treatment of weaknesses from lung disease. The ripe fruit promotes bowel movements, cleanses the bladder, and alleviates diseases of the blood. The juice is used to stop bleeding, vomiting of blood, and otherwise excreting blood, and it is given for epilepsy, strokes, and in the treatment of insanity. It is also given, together with a small amount of shein-kho (Gardenia resinifera) and wheat ash (obtained from burning grains in closed receptacles so more of the structure is retained), to alleviate bladder inflammation and dissolve kidney stones. Seed: Used for deworming. Root: A mixture of root powder and hot water is taken for coughing, bronchitis, and asthma.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). The medicinal uses of the species in China, Indonesia, and the Philippines are discussed in Perry (1980).

Reported constituents include fixed oil, starch, the alkaloid cucurbitine, an acid resin, proteins (myosin and vitellin), and sugar (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

2. Coccinia Wight & Arn

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt (= Cephalandra indica (Wight & Arn.) Naudin; Coccinia indica Wight & Arn.)

Names

Myanmar: kinmon, kin pone, hla cawi bactine (Mon), taw-kinmon. English: ivy gourd, wild snake gourd.

Range

Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australasia, Pacific. Found growing wild throughout Myanmar; found growing up trees and hedges.

Uses

Of the two kinds of kin pone, bitter and sweet, the bitter kind is the most used in medicines. All five parts (root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit) are employed. Whole plant: The liquid from the whole boiled plant is well-known as an effective expectorant. Fruit: The bitter fruit, known for cooling and laxative properties, is considered good for phlegm and bile. Leaf: The astringent and bitter leaves stimulate nerves and promote growth. The green leaves are stir-fried and eaten by diabetics. Leaves boiled with equal parts of coriander seeds are used in deworming preparations and as a laxative. They are also used in medicines to treat bile problems and lung ailments. The juice is applied frequently on cold sores to cure them. Fruit: Used to promote lactation in new mothers, to alleviate gas and blood diseases, and to treat asthma and bronchitis. Root: Can be used to reduce fever and to treat diarrhea.

The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999). The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species as a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by Neuwinger (1994). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

This plant is a well known traditional anti-diabetic remedy, its hypoglycemic properties based on peptides and terpenoids in the fruit juice (Marles and Farnsworth 1995). A polypeptide of molecular weight 11,000 is the basis of the blood sugar lowering properties of the fruit (Mors et al. 2000). Toxicity of this species is discussed by Bruneton (1999).

References

Nordal (1963), Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan (1967), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng.

Names

Myanmar: hpak-se-saw, samon-nwe, taw-thabut, tha-myet. English: Chinese bitter-cucumber, Chinese-cucumber, spiny bitter-cucumber, spiny bittergourd.

Range

Temperate and tropical Asia, from China to the Moluccas; Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Rakhine, and Yangon.

Uses

Fruit: Used as a laxative. Seed: Used to treat chest problems and in parturition.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in East and Southeast Asian countries as follows: In China, where the seeds are used for abdominal illnesses, liver and spleen disorders, and hemorrhoids as well as bruises, swellings, skin trouble, ulcers, lumbago, chronic malaria, breast cancer, abscesses, and as a resolvent, and the root is used as an expectorant; Indo-China, where the seeds are ground and soaked in alcohol and water, then used as a resolvent of furuncles, abscesses, buboes, and mumps, and also in the treatment of edema of the legs and a kind of rheumatism; the Malay Peninsula, where “the Chinese living there use the plant in same way as in China”; Indonesia, where the juice the leaves is put in fresh palm wine, or the leaves are cooked in wine and used as remedy for weary, swollen legs; and in the Philippines, where the seeds are used as a pectoral, and the root as a substitute for soap and also to kill head lice.

Medicinal uses in the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana) are discussed in DeFilipps et al. (2004).

Reported chemical constituents include momordin, a-spinasterol, and sesquibenihiol. The seeds have a fixed oil comprised of stearic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and ricinoleic acids, and also trehalose, resinous, and pectic substances; and that the root contains momordine (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

6. Trichosanthes L

Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. (= T. palmata Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: kyee-arh pin. English: creeper.

Range

Eastern Himalayas, India, east to China, Japan, Malaysia, tropical Australia. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar, except in cold areas.

Uses

Fruit: Known for its bitter and slightly sweet taste, can be harmful to the heart. A mixture of crushed fruits boiled with coconut oil is used as an eardrop and nasal drop preparation. The juice stimulates bowel movements. Crushed dried fruits are mixed in smoking cheroots and pipes with tobacco to treat asthma. The fruit is also used for throat problems, indigestion, coughing, and leprosy, as well as chronic and gastric diseases. Root: Ground to form a paste rubbed onto the tongue to reduce phlegm. Tubers boiled and taken with honey for urinary disorders.

Notes

In Indo-China the species is used as a strong purgative and emetic; on the Malay Peninsula the leaves are used to poultice boils; in Indonesia the leaves are one ingredient in a group of fresh plant parts from which the juice is extracted and used for medicines, the leaf juice is also drunk by children to treat diarrhea (Perry 1980). The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Cyperaceae (Sedge family)

1. Cyperus L

Cyperus scariosus R.Br.

Names

Myanmar: nwar myay yinn, wet-myet-nyo. English: Annie’s lace.

Range

Damp and marshy places in temperate zone. Also reported from Myanmar.

Uses

This astringent plant, sharp in taste with cooling properties, induces perspiration, urination (and constipation). Root: Tubers used for phlegm, bile, fever and bowel problems. Their use protects against loss of appetite, thirst, burning sensation, and asthma. Tuber paste given orally or applied externally provides a remedy for venomous snakebites. The paste is also used for nausea, gastric ailments, sour stomach, swollen limbs, itching, leprosy, herpes, and scabies. Combined with a bit of salt, the paste is used as an antidote for poisoning caused by ingesting the wrong medicines or foods. Tuber paste is brushed onto a thu-nge-sar banana (smaller and shorter variety of banana than “standard banana” found in the United States), which is roasted and given to children with high fevers. Boiled by itself, the tuber is taken as a cure for gonorrhea; boiled together with oo-pat thagar (Butea monosperma), it is a component of a syphilis remedy. Tuber powder is used to relieve the swelling caused by scorpion venom. Drinking the milk made by stewing tubers in milk and water until only milk is left provides a cure for dysenteric stomachaches with discharge of mucus or diarrhea with of bits of blood.

Notes

The species is used in the treatment of abdomenal tumors (Duke 2009). Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

Anti-inflammatory activity of the oil isolated from C. scariosus has been noted (Gupta et al. 1972).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Dilleniaceae (Dillenia family)

1. Dillenia L

Dillenia indica L.

Names

Myanmar: thabyu, maisen (Kachin), khwati (Kayin), haprut (Mon). English: elephant apple.

Range

Temperate and tropical Asia. Found growing naturally in lower Myanmar, along woods, hills, and especially stream banks.

Uses

Fruit: The green fruit is used in preparations to regulate phlegm, reduce fevers, and alleviate shooting chest pains and fatigue. The fruit is mixed with rock sugar to make a cordial used to relieve coughs, bring down high fevers, and cleanse the bowels. The juice from the squeezed fruit is given as a remedy for epilepsy and rabies.

Note

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Dioscoreaceae (Yam family)

1. Dioscorea L

Dioscorea bulbifera L.

Names

Myanmar: kway, ah-lu-thi, putsa-u. English: aerial yam, air potato, potato yam.

Range

Tropical Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Mon, Sagaing, and Shan.

Use

In Upper Myanmar, the plant is considered to be a galactagogue.

Notes

In China the tubers are considered cooling and antidotal; used internally and externally as remedies for sore throat, boils, swelling, and poisonous snakebites In the Philippines the powder obtained from scraping the axial fruit (bulblets) is rubbed on the abdomen (Perry 1980). Medicinal uses of this species in China are also discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). Medicinal uses of the species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997).

The tubers contain tannin, saponin, and alkaloids (poisonous); also, both the bulblets and the tubers contain a toxic principle removable by repeated washings and cooking (Perry 1980). The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species as a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by Neuwinger (1994). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997).

References

Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Dioscorea pentaphylla L.

Names

Myanmar: kyway-u, put-sa-u. English: five-leaved yam.

Range

Widespread- China, including Taiwan; Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan (Okinawa), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Philippines, Vietnam; Africa, Australia, Pacific islands. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.

Use

Root: Tuber used to reduce swellings.

Notes

The species can be made edible by prolonged washing alternately in salt and fresh water and then cooked, or by prolonged boiling with ashes of wood. The plant is also used for some medicinal purposes (exact uses not listed in Perry 1980).

Tubers of the genus contain tannin, saponin, and alkaloids, some in greater, some in less quantity than others (the alkaloids are poisonous, but may be washed out in a long tedious process) (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Ebenaceae (Ebony family)

1. Diospyros L

Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. (= D. embryopteris Pers.; D. glutinosa J.Koenig ex Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: bok-pyin, yengan-bok. English: Indian persimmon, mountain ebony.

Range

India to Indonesia. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Mon, and Taninthayi.

Uses

Bark: Used to treat diarrhea and chronic dysentery, and greatly diluted extract used as injections for vaginal discharge. Fruit: Unripe astringent fruit used for same purposes as bark. Juice of the fruit is used to treat sores and wounds.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The bark is an astringent, used for intermittent fever and dysentery; the fruit astringent, infusion of fruits is gargled for sore throat and aphthae, the juice is applied to ulcers and wounds; oil from the seed is used as a remedy for dysentery and diarrhea. Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China and Indo-China as similar to those in Myanmar.

Reference

Perry (1980).

Diospyros mollis Griff.

Name

Myanmar: te.

Range

Myanmar and Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.

Use

Fruit: The fresh fruit, or an extract of the fruit is used as an anthelmintic.

Notes

Perry (1980) discuses the uses of the fruit in Thailand and Indo-China, and the seed in Cambodia.

Reported chemical constituents of this species are tannins, sterols, organic acids, aphrogenic principle, invertine, emulsine, a hydroquinonic principle, and diospyroquinone. The vermicidal property of the fruit is due to the presence of diospyroquinone (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Ericaceae (Heath family)

1. Rhododendron L

Rhododendron moulmainense Hook.

Names

Myanmar: zalat-pyu. English: Westland’s rhododendron.

Range

Southern China, northeastern India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, it is found in Mon.

Use

The plant has narcotic properties.

Notes

Perry (1980) discusses several other members of the genus that are used for various medicinal purposes in East and Southeast Asian countries, including Korea, China, and the Philippines. She notes that honey collected where Rhododendron moulmainense is abundant is sometimes stupefying.

Reference

Perry (1980).

Euphorbiaceae (Spurge family)

1. Acalypha L

Acalypha indica L.

Names

Myanmar: kyaung-yo-thay pin, kyaung-se-pin, kyaung-yo-the. English: Indian acalypha, copperleaf.

Range

Old World tropical regions. Found growing on plains all over Myanmar, except in cold mountainous regions.

Uses

Leaf: A mixture of the juice and that of the leaves from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) acts as an expectorant and is given for bronchitis, diarrhea, and vomiting. Cooked leaves are eaten to alleviate asthma, hypertension, impurities in the blood, and to treat various illnesses in infants. Other preparations are taken to relieve inflammation of the joints, fevers caused by chest colds and infections, asthma, and a burning sensation in the windpipe. A decoction is used as an emetic to cure pleurisy, cleanse and clear breathing passages, and alleviate swelling of the windpipe, as well as to cure asthma, hypertension, and skin problems caused by impurities in the blood. The juice is considered a remedy for ringworm, scabies, and rashes; a mixture of the juice and neem (Azadirachta indica) oil is used for various skin diseases that cause itching. A mixture of the leaves and castor oil is applied to relieve joint aches. Leaf juice is also used as eardrops for ear infections, earaches, and other ear problems. Crushed and applied as a poultice, leaves are used to heal sores. Stir-fried, they are eaten with large prawns to alleviate exhaustion and fatigue but with dried nga-mway-toh (Mastacembelus armatus) fish to prevent inflammation of the appendix; the same mixture is used to alleviate constipation, diarrhea, and nagging stomachaches. Boiled leaves made into a salad are eaten to treat lung disease, neurological disease, ringing in the ear, earache, gastric pain, and stomach-ache.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) lists the uses of the species in India, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

A cyanogenetic glucoside, triacetonamine, and quebrachitol have been islolated from South African material of this species (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Acalypha wilkesiana Müll. Arg.

Names

Myanmar: saydan-kya. English: copperleaf, Jacob’s coat, firedragon.

Range

Pacific Islands, the exact origin is unknown. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

The species has medicinal uses in Myanmar, but Nordal (1963) does not list them.

Notes

The species has medicinal uses for ache, swelling, as a testicle altschul, and as a bacterioside (chemical found in plant shown to be effective for this purpose) (Duke 2009).

Gallic acid, corilagin, and geraniin were isolated from an ethnol extract of the leaves of this species. These compounds were found to be responsible for the observed antimicorbioal activity (Adesina et al. 2000).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Uses

Stem: Branch sliced, dried, powdered, and administered to check profuse lochial discharge; Sap: Latex applied to warts. Root: Root bark used as a purgative.

Notes

In India the whole plant used for skin infections; latex, for dropsy, as nerve tonic, and for bronchitis (with ginger and bulb of Thysanolaena); pith for syphilis, dropsy, anasarca; bark (in combination with bark of two other species) on venereal sores; and the leaf for deafness (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the whole plant is used in a decoction to treat bladder inflammation; raw plant tissues are used internally for cholera; the stem latex is applied to warts, and the stem is compressed onto large boils (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Perry (1980) discusses the uses of this species in China, Indo-China, and the Malay Peninsula, as well as Myanmar.

Chemical constituents of the plant include cycloartenol, epifriedelanol, euphol, euphorbol, friedelan-3alpha-ol, friedelan-3beta-ol, taraxerol, and taraxerone (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The therapeutic use of this species is about the same as E. neriifolia (see below), but it is somewhat more poisonous; it is also used as a fish poison. This species and E. neriifolia appear to contain the same elements and have similar poisonous properties. Reported constituents of the latex are euphorbon, resin, rubber, malic acid, and gum (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Euphorbia hirta L.

Names

Myanmar: kywai-kyaung min hsay, kywai-kyaung min thay, hsay min kyaung, kanah-tanow pryin (Mon). English: Australian asthma weed, milk weed, Queensland asthma herb.

Range

Pantropical weed. Widely distributed throughout Myanmar, growing naturally.

Uses

Whole plant: A decoction is given for asthma and bronchitis. New mothers eat it any way they like to promote lactation. In a salad or with fish paste or fish sauce dip, it is consumed to alleviate stomach pains from heat stroke, as well as to strengthen nerves and blood vessels along the breathing passages. Juice from crushing the five parts (stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and root) is used to treat fatigue in asthmatics, is taken with water after every meal to promote digestion, and is considered beneficial for the heart and the air passages. It is used to treat vomiting of blood, loose stools, and chest pain. Sap: Described as sweet, bitter, sharp and salty, with heating properties, it is known to increase semen and stabilize pregnancy, as well as to alleviate fevers, coughs, colds, and runny noses. Applied topically, it is used to clear pimples and scabies. Leaf: Sweet and astringent, used to control heat, and also applied topically for ringworm, scabies, itching, and other skin disorders. The juice is used widely to treat mucus within the chest in, inflammation of air passage, and coughs in children. A decoction of the leaves is mixed with a large amount of sugar and ingested to alleviate bleeding dysentery.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in South China, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and Indo-China are discussed in Perry (1980).

Reported chemical constituents of the species include quercetin, triacontane, phytosterol, phytosterolin, jambulol (now identified as ellagic acid); melissic, gallic, palmitic, linolic, and oleic acids; euphosterol; also an alkaloid, xanthorhamnine. The plant also contains hydrogen cyanide and a triterpinoid, an extract of which “has some antibiotic activity on Staphylococcus” (Perry 1980). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Euphorbia neriifolia L.

Names

Myanmar: shazaung-myin-na, ta-zaung, zizaung. English: hedge euphorbia, Indian spurgetree, oleander-leaved euphorbia.

Range

India; perhaps also East Indies. Cultivated in Myanmar and elsewhere.

Use

Leaf: Used to treat asthma.

Note

Perry (1980) discusses the uses of the species in Taiwan, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and Indonesia.

Reference

Forest Department (1999).

6. Jatropha L

Jatropha curcas L.

Names

Myanmar: thin-baw-kyetsy, kyetsi-gyi, kyet-su-gyi, makman-yoo, siyo-kyetsu, thinbaw-kyetsu, tun-kong. English: Barbados nut, physic nut, purging nut, wild oil nut.

Range

Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used as a galactagogue. Fruit and Seed: Employed as an anthelmintic. Seed: Aperient.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999). The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species as a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by Neuwinger (1994).

A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986). Seeds of Jatropha curcas contain curcin, a poisonous chemical constituent which can cause death if ingested; plant sap can cause irritating dermatitis (Lan et al. 1998).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Jatropha gossypiifolia L.

Names

Myanmar: kyetsu-kanako, taw-kanako, thinbaw-kanako. English: physic nut, bellyache bush.

Range

Mexico to South America; West Indies. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used to treat skin diseases. Root: Used as a purgative.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986). This species produces jatrophone, a macrocyclic diterpenoid with tumor inhibiting properties (Mors et al. 2000).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Jatropha multifida L.

Myanmar: hpadawng, hpawng-awn, mai-hpawng-tun, palannwe, po-thi-din, taw-thi-din. English: Indian kamala, kamala tree.

Range

From southern China to New Guinea and Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, and Yangon.

Uses

Fruit used as an anthelmintic and laxative.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The glandular hairs on the fruit used as a purgative. They are said to destroy tapeworms, and are also employed on ringworm, scabies and other skin diseases. Additionally, they have been found to reduce fertility in experimental animals. The fruit is used for dysentery and constipation; the root as tonic for pregnant women. Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Perry (1980) discusses the species uses in China, India, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines. She especially notes that, in the Philippines, the glands of M. philippensis are mixed with the charred bark and flowers of Pterospermum diversifolium, and employed in smallpox to cause suppuration.

Research has shown that the dye from this species is an antioxidant; rottlerin is an antifertility factor, isorottlerin less active; the fruit extract is bactericidal; and the seeds contain 18.5–20% protein, 23.7–25.8% fat (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In the Philippines an extract of kamala (the powder), the active principle of which is rottlerin, and hexachlorethane “gave encouraging results in treating fascioliasis (liver fluke infestation) in cattle and Indian buffaloes, with the conclusion that the effect of the drug deserved further study” (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

8. Ricinus L

Ricinus communis L.

Names

Myanmar: kyet-hsu, kyetsu, thinbaw kyet-hsu, kyet-hsu yoe-ni, shapawing (Kachin), tanah toung (Mon), toon (Mon), mai-kong-leng (Shan). English: castor bean, castor oil plant, wonder-tree.

Range

Tropical Africa. Although found wild in nature, now cultivated widely for the extraction of oil from the seeds. In Myanmar, does well in Sagaing, Mandalay, and Shan; prefers a warm temperate climate, but can also thrive in hot and dry areas. Found growing naturally on the banks of rivers, lakes and streams.

Uses

Sweet and rather bitter with heating properties, the plant is considered difficult to digest but generally effective at increasing sperm, regulating bowel movements, and controlling flatulence and phlegm. Leaf: Used in remedies for headaches and in poultices for sores and wounds. A decoction of leaves reduced to one-third the starting volume is ingested to alleviate strong gas and phlegm; also used for testes enlargement, bladder aches and pains, sore throat, and bile problems. Seed: They and their oil (lethal in their natural form) are used in oral medications after detoxifying. The detoxified, ground seeds are applied as a paste to neutralize venom from scorpion stings. They are also employed in anthelmintic remedies; and in medicines for flatulence, fever, cough, stomach bloating, liver disease, shooting abdominal pains, dysentery, back and bladder conditions, head-aches, asthma, leprosy, edema, and a general weakening malaise in men. Detoxified seed oil is additionally used to make laxative preparations, as well as to facilitate childbirth, and to strengthen hair.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). Traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of this species are discussed by Ross (2001). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995) and Bekele-Tesemma (1993). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000).

The plant and its seeds can cause skin irritation (contact dermatitis). “The pomace (residue after extracting the oil from castor beans) can cause asthma, urticaria, and dermatitis among castor oil extractors…(Castor oil used in) lipstick can also be the source of contact dermatitis resulting in cheilitis…Cases of allergy to castor oil, contact dermatitis of the face due to a makeup remover and contact dermatitis due to sulfonated castor oil have recently been described…Ricinoleic acid has been claimed to be the agent causing lipstick dermatitis.” The seed contains a poisonous substance, the protein “ricin”, which is not present in castor oil, but is “probably responsible for certain allergies related to the plant” (Benezra et al. 1985).

It has been reported that “Ricin”, a white crystalline compound isolated from castor beans (Ricinus communis), is listed by the FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation, USA) as the third most poisonous substance known, behind plutonium and the botulism toxin. Toxicity of this species is discussed by Bruneton (1999). Ricin and ricinine contained in the seeds and leaves make this one of the most toxic plants known, and as noted by Lan et al. (1998): “A single seed of 0.25 g contains a lethal dose. The toxins are stable to proteolytic enzymes and hence are not destroyed when taken orally.”

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Fabaceae (Bean family)

1. Abrus Adans

Abrus precatorius L.

Names

Myanmar: chek-awn, ywe, ywe-nge, ywe-nwe, ywenge. English: chicken eyes, crab eyes, jequirity, red bean vine, rosary pea.

Range

Pantropical; widely naturalized. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

(Whole plant: poisonous). Leaf: Used to cure a sore throat. Seed: Emetic and purgative. Root: Employed as an expectorant. After being crushed with water and steamed, the distillate is taken with sugar to treat hemorrhoids. Soaked in water overnight, filtered through a cloth, and the filtered liquid taken once in the morning and once in the evening to treat white vaginal discharge. Leaf: Crushed together with mustard oil and used either by rubbing on, or tied around as a poultice, to cure swollen joints and stiff muscles. Crushed with oil and rubbed on to treat aches and pains. Juice from squeezing the leaves together with milk can treat excessive urination in diabetics. Seed: Made into a powder and inhaled to cure severe headaches. Making the seeds and root into a powder and taking the mixture with coconut water can treat hemorrhoids.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Since the broken seed is conventionally known to be poisonous due to the necrotic action of its constituent chemical “abrin”, care must be taken in its use. Symptoms of the poisoning (which can happen, for example, from chewing or sucking on a necklace made of the beads) appear after a latent period which can vary from three hours to two days, whereupon severe gastroenteritis with diarrhea, cramps and vomiting occurs. Bleeding from the retina (of the eye) and serous (mucous) membranes is a characteristic symptom of the poisoning. In this connection it is notable that the seeds, under the name “semen jequirity”, were formerly used in medicine, especially ophthalmology, to cause inflammation of mucosa (Frohne and Pfander 1984). Frohne and Pfander (1984) further advise that: “On the other hand, intact seeds, because of their hard testa (seed coat), when swallowed whole are harmless.”

“The seeds are poisonous, but it is said that, if boiled, their toxic principle (toxalbumin) is destroyed. After this precautionary measure the seeds have been (known to be) boiled again in milk (which is used) as a tonic [in Dominica].” (Honychurch 1980). The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999).

A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of the plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986). In connection with this plant’s usage in ophthalmology, a seed infusion was formerly used in Brazil to treat trachoma and corneal opacity, but the use of it was abandoned since it was too dangerous, sometimes leading to loss of eyesight (Mors et al. 2000). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Toxicity of this species is discussed by Bruneton (1999).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

2. Acacia Mill

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.

Names

Myanmar: mung-ting, nya, sha, shaji, tun-sa-se. English: black cutch, catechu, cutch, wadalee-gum tree.

Range

West Pakistan to Myanmar. In Myanmar, found in Magway and Mandalay.

Uses

Bark used as an astringent. Wood: An extract is used to treat ulcers and chest problems.

Notes

Note

In India the bark is used for dandruff and as an antidote to snake poison (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

3. Adenanthera L

Adenanthera pavonina L.

Names

Myanmar: mai-chek, ywe, ywe-gyi, ywe-ni. English: bead tree, coral pea, coral wood, red sandalwood.

Range

Southeastern Asia- primarily in India, southeastern China and Malasia to the Moluccas. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Seed: Used for poulticing.

Notes

Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species on the Malay Peninsula, in Indonesia, and in the Philippines.

“An alcoholic extract of air-dried leaves showed an alkaloidal substance” (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

4. Albizia Durazz

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Names

Use

Seed: Used for production of peanut oil. Oil aperient, emollient.

Notes

In India the fruit is used as an astringent (its oil is also astringent to the bowels), an aperient, and an emollient; also, unripe nuts are used for a lactagogue (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). These include the use of the seed for an oil aperient, emollient, and for gonorrhea (given in milk); applied externally for rheumatism; considered demulcent, pectoral, and peptic. “ In China this widely cultivated species is considered to be nutritive, peptic, demulcent, and pectoral (Perry 1980).

“The oilseed cake is a good source of the amino acid arginine … and glutamic acid, which is used in treating mental deficiencies” (Perry 1980). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Toxicity of this species is discussed by Bruneton (1999).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

8. Archidendron F. Muell

Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C. Nielsen (= Pithecellobium lobatum Benth.)

Names

Myanmar: tanyin, danyin. English: dog fruit, ngapi nut.

Range

Believed to have originated, and is widely distributed in Indonesia, Malaysia and southern Thailand; also in Bangladesh. Reported from Myanmar.

Uses

Seed: Used to treat diabetes; eaten, but poisonous in any quantity.

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

9. Bauhinia L

Bauhinia acuminata L.

Names

Myanmar: mahahlega-phyu, maha-hlega-byu, palan, swe-daw. English: dwarf white bauhinia.

Range

India, Myanmar, China, Malaysia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Flower: Used as a laxative.

Notes

Root extract used as a poultice.

The rhizomes and root have been used for their insecticidal properties and have shown antifungal activity as well. Chemicals found in this species have been shown to be effective in the treatment of cold, cough, and sore throat; also for cataplasm and ulcers (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Bauhinia purpurea L.

Names

Myanmar: maha-hlega-ni, maha-hlega-byu, swe-daw, swedaw-ni. English: butterfly tree, camel’s foot tree.

Range

India, Myanmar, China, Malaysia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Bark: Astringent. Flower: Employed as a laxative.

Note

In India the bark is used as an ingredient in medicine for dropsy, scorpion sting and insect bites, rheumatism, convulsions, stomach tumors, and as an antidote to certain toxins and poisons; the flower is used for indigestion (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

10. Butea Roxb. ex Willd

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (= B. frondosa Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: paukpin, shagan changgan (Kachin), pawpan (Kayin), tanom khapore (Mon), kao mai, kikao, maikao (Shan). English: bastard-teak, flame-of-the-forest.

Range

Tropical Asia. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar, with the exception of the mountainous areas; grows most commonly by the sides of streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes.

Uses

The parts are used in preparations stimulating digestion, increasing sperm production, promoting repair of broken bone, and improving urinary flow. Bark: Knobs are powdered, rolled in honey, and formed into pellets that are taken for strength and longevity. Sap: Fresh sap is applied topically as an ointment to relieve sores, rashes, and bumps. It is also used to make remedies taken orally for diarrhea. Gum and Leaf: Used as an astringent. Leaf: Used to make tonics. Flower: Liquid from soaking flowers overnight in cold water is mixed with sugar and taken orally to alleviate anal pain, blood in the urine, and nosebleeds. Flowers stewed in water are applied to the navel area while still warm to ease bladder inflammation and promote urination. The dried flowers are brewed into a tea taken to relieve fatigue, as well as to cleanse the blood and body systems. The flowers are also used in remedies for urinary infections and leprosy. Seed: An ointment made from the crushed seeds mixed with lime juice is used for ringworm. After soaking in water and removing the seed coats, the inner seed kernels are dried and powdered; the powder is given twice daily for four days, and a laxative is also given on the fourth day to expel intestinal worms. Seed and Bark: Used in remedies for neutralizing snake venoms.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). In addition to Myanmar, medicinal uses of the species in Indo-China and Indonesia are discussed in Perry (1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Butea superba Roxb.

Note

Fresh immature seeds are considered poisonous.

Notes

In China, the whole plant is pounded and applied to boils; the seed is used as a bechic, stomatic, and tonic, also to strengthen the kidney (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

13. Cassia L

Cassia fistula L.

Notes

In India the leaf is used on swellings, the seed as a laxative, the root for goiter and leprosy, and an unspecified part for snakebite (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Perry (1980) discusses the uses of the species in Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia. She notes that medicinal use of the species is primarily in Java and India.

Perry (1980) lists the chemical constituents of the species.

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

16. Cullen Medik

Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (= Psoralea corylifolia L.)

Names

Myanmar: babchi, nehle. English: prairie turnip, scuffy pea.

Range

Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Arabia, Somomali Republic, Socotra. In Myanmar, found in Magway and Mandalay.

Uses

Fruit, Seeds, Root: Used as diuretic, antiasthmatic, and laxative.

Notes

In India the leaf is used for diarrhea; the seed as an anthelmintic, diuretic, deobstruent; for stomach problems, skin diseases, leucoderma, leprosy, scorpion sting, and snakebite (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the fruit is used as an aphrodisiac and tonic to the genital organs. The seed is used as an aphrodisiac, stimulant, and tonic in arthritis, dysmenorrhea, enuresis, fever, impotence, leprosy, leucoderma, leucorrhea, lumbago, polyuria, premature ejaculation, spermatorrhea, and splenits. It is used externally for callosities, vitiligo, and other skin ailments such as leucoderma, leprosy, and psoriasis. The root is used for caries (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Medicinal uses of the seeds in China, Indo-China, and the Malay Peninsula are discussed in Perry (1980). She notes that, from the literature, it appears the seeds of this species are an ancient Hindu medicine.

In India, oleorsin extract is used locally on leprosy (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). According to one study, a 30% alcohol extract of the seeds applied to spots of leucoderma showed “enough improvement to justify further study”. Others have observed that the essential oil has a powerful effect against cutaneous streptococci. The seeds contents are reported to include fixed oil, essential oil, oleoresin, psoralen, isopsoralen, and psoralidin (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

17. Cynometra L

Cynometra ramiflora L.

Names

Myanmar: myinga, ye-minga. English: cynometra.

Range

India, Indo-China, and Malesia. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Rakhine, and Taninthayi.

Uses

Leaf: Used as an antiherpetic. Root: Employed as a purgative.

Notes

Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of this species in East and Southeast Asia. Duke (2009) notes use the species for dermatosis, scabies, and leprosy. In India the leaf is boiled in cow’s milk and mixed with honey into a lotion, then applied externally for skin diseases, scabies, and leprosy; oil from the seed is applied externally for the same afflictions; and the root is used as a purgative and cathartic (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Perry (1980).

18. Delonix Raf

Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf.

Names

Myanmar: jaw-gale, seinban. English: flamboyant, gold mohur, royal poinciana.

Range

Seasonally dry areas of western and northern Madagascar. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Nordal (1963) lists this species as having medicinal properties, but the plant parts and uses are unspecified.

Notes

The bark of this species is employed as a febrifuge in Indo-China. The gum which oozes from it “is similar to gum arabic” (Perry 1980).

The leaves contain saponin and alkaloid (Perry 1980).

Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995) and Bekele-Tesemma (1993).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

19. Entada Adans

Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr.

Names

Myanmar: do, gon-nyin. English: sword bean.

Range

Pantropical. Reported from Myanmar.

Uses

Seed: Used as an emetic and febrifuge; also as a fish poison.

Notes

In China the plant is considered anti-cancer; also used for splenititis with high temperature and as a wash for itch, pityriasis, and wounds. The seed is used to treat hemorrhoids in children (Duke and Ayensu 1985). In India the juice from the bark and wood is applied externally for ulcers and the stem is used as an emetic; the seeds are used as an anthelmintic, tonic, antiperiodic, and emetic; a paste made from them is locally applied to inflamed glandular swellings (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Medicinal uses of the species in additional East and Southeast Asian countries follow: In Mongolia the plant is used to treat illnesses with a high temperature in the spleen; on the Malay Peninsula ashes of pods are applied to the abdomen for severe internal complaints; in Indonesia the pounded roots are rubbed on, and the juice from the stem is drunk to treat a feverish abdomen and dysentery, roasted seeds are eaten by women as a depurative in post partum and are administered in small doses for stomachache, as an emetic, and are a component in some compound medicines; and in the Philippines a decoction of the roots is drunk to treat a rigid abdomen and smashed seeds are used to poultice abdominal complaints, such as colic of children (Perry 1980).

The seeds contain oil with palmitic-, stearic-, lignoceric-, linoleic-, and oleic acid, raffinoe, traces of alkaloid, and steroids; the seed, stem, and bark contain saponin A and B; and the stem and root bark contain HCN. Also, the seed has entagenic acid, a saponin active against a type of carcinosarcoma in rats (Duke and Ayensu 1985). “Much of the medicinal use of the species is due to the presence of saponin in the bark, wood, and seeds.” Seeds are edible after proper preparation: “They must be roasted until the seedcoat bursts, washed in water for 24 hours, and boiled before eating.” Reported chemical constituents include saponins and a heteroside, also a poisonous alkaloid. “Two saponins, nearly alike in chemical and pharmacological properties, have a strong hemolytic action on human red blood cells; stem, seeds, and bark are poisonous” (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

20. Erythrina L

Erythrina variegata L. (= E. indica Lam.)

Names

Myanmar: kathit, in-kathit. English: Indian coral tree.

Range

Tanzania to India, Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands (var. orientalis).

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Bark: Used as an antipyretic and, in a decoction, to treat liver problems. Bark, Leaf, Root: Used to treat dysentery and inflammation.

Notes

In India the bark is used for convulsion and for paralysis of the tongue (given with roots of two other plants); also for pimples, cough and cold, and snakebite (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the leaf is used as an anthelmintic, antisyphilitic, diuretic, emmenagogue, lactagogue, and laxative; leaf juice for earache, toothache, and worms. Stem-bark is employed as an analgesic for arthritis, neuralgia, and rheunmatism; also as a febrifuge, cholagogue, expectorant, ophthalmic, hepatic, and vermifuge (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Perry (1980) notes that the bark and leaves are the parts most often used. She discusses the uses of the species in Indo-China, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands.

Chemical constituents include hydrocyanic acid in the stems, leaves, fruit, and roots; and two alkaloids, erythraline and hypaphorine, in the seeds. Resins, fixed oils, fatty acids, hypaphorine, betaine, choline, potassium chloride, and potassium carbonate are present in the bark (Perry 1980). The poisonous alkaloid fraction shows anti-convulsive activity, inhibits neuromuscular activity, weakens the smooth muscles, and paralyzes the central nervous system; HCN occurs in most parts of the plant. The bark is bacteriostatic against Staphylococcus aureus (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

21. Flemingia Roxb. ex W.T. Aiton

Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.

Names

Myanmar: bahon, gyo-pan, kyabahon, se-laik-pya.

Range

Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand.Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Root: Used as a sedative and analgesic.

Notes

This species has been studied for its anti-cancer and antiviral activities (Rastogi and Dhawan 1990). Rao (1990) has reviewed root flavonoids, including those of this species, as a source of pharmaceuticals. Adityachaudhury and Gupta (1973) have found a new pterocarpan and coumestan in the roots of F. chappar. They briefly discuss the antimicrobial activies and biosynthetic pathways of these compounds.

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T. Aiton (= Moghania strobilifera (L.) J. St.-Hill.)

Names

Myanmar: se-laik-pya, thingu-gyat. English: wildhops.

Range

India to the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady and Yangon.

Use

Root: Used to treat epilepsy.

Note

On the Malay Peninsula and in the Philippines, a decoction of the root of this species is administered as a post partum protective medicine, and the leaves are employed at the same time to wash the body; also used in a lotion to treat rheumatism., Additionally, in the Philippines a decoction or infusion of the leves and flowers is prescribed for tuberculosis (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

22. Glycine Willd

Glycine max (L.) Merr. (= G. hispida (Moench) Maxim.; G. soja Sieb. & Zucc.)

Names

Myanmar: ber-hrum, hsan-to-nouk, ngasee, pe-bok, pe-ngapi. English: soja bean, soy bean, soya bean.

Range

Southeast Asia. Now widely cultivated in the Orient and elsewhere. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Seed: used as a tonic and carminative.

Notes

The seeds are regarded as a tonic, diuretic, febrifuge, and antidote. Also, the seeds in combination with other drugs are used to treat a large number of ailments. “It was observed many years ago that natives in the Orient ate infested meat products without ill effects, if soy sauce was a part of the meal” (Perry 1980).

The species is said to assist the flow of digestive juices, increase the assimilation of high protein foods, and to be a source of riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, panthotheic acid, and choline. An antibiotic, canavalin, has been found in the plant, which is useful in treating certain pneumococci. Results of research by the Soya Corporation of America have lead to the production of an “edible antibiotic that counteracts various types of harmful bacteria through implantation of beneficial intestinal flora”. Raw soybeans contain a toxic principle with hemolytic activity which is destroyed by heat (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

23. Indigofera L

Indigofera cassioides DC. (= I. pulchella Roxb.)

Use

Root: Used as fish poison.

Notes

In China the whole plant is used as a tonic and to induce the growth of red blood cells (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Medicinal uses of the species in East and Southeast Asia include as an antianemic, a tonic, and to induce growth of red blood cells. It is also employed as an insecticide and to stun fish (Perry 1980).

Millettia pachycarpa contains the antitumor compound rotenone (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

27. Mimosa L

Mimosa pudica L.

Names

Myanmar: hi-ga-yone, tikayon, kaya (Kachin), hta-muck (Mon), nam ya-hai-awn (Shan). English: mimosa, sensitive plant, shame weed, touch-me-not.

Range

Pantropical, originating in the Neotropics (thought probably native to South America). Grows naturally all over Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Whole plant: Bitter and astringent in taste with cooling properties, the five parts (root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit) are known to “calm” (reduce) phlegm and bile. A mixture of the crushed plant and water is applied topically to reduce edema. The liquid extracted from the whole plant is applied to treat inflamed sores; also used to make tonics and medicines to treat vomiting of blood, hemorrhaging, and asthma. The whole plant is also employed as a diuretic and antiseptic. Leaf: Crushed and applied as a poultice over the pubic region to treat excessive urination. A mixture of the powdered leaves and milk is taken for hemorrhoids. Root: Paste is applied topically to heal sores. A root decoction is given to dissolve gall stones and to promote urinary function.

Notes

Seeds of M. pudica contain L-Djenkolic acid which if consumed in sufficient quantities can lead to acute kidney malfunction, and also contain L-Mimosine which may impart goitrogenic effects (Lan et al. 1998).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

28. Mucuna Adans

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (= M. prurita (L.) Hook.)

Names

Myanmar: gwin-nge, hko-mak-awa, khwele, khwe-ya, khwe-laya, to-ma-awn, pwekonclaw (Mon), ra, yan-nung (Chin), hko-ma-awn (Shan). English: common cowitch, cowhage, cowitch, velvet bean.

Range

Himalyas, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kayin, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.

Uses

Known for a bitter-sweet taste, cooling properties, and control of flatulence and gall bladder. Leaf: Boiled, eaten with fish paste or fish sauce as a dip, is used as a remedy for male maladies; it is also given to mothers to increase lactation, prevent vomiting, and stop bleeding. Fruit: Used as a de-worming medicine; also pulverized and mixed with water, then ingested as a remedy for urination problems. Seed: Used in a tonic. The seeds and seed cases are used in preparations to increase sperm, stimulate lactation, improve circulation, promote vitality and weight gain, expel intestinal worms, and strengthen the senses. Seed cases are rubbed on affected areas to alleviate numbness. Stir-fried or otherwise cooked young seeds are eaten to stop vomiting and bleeding. Fried in butter, they are given to promote strength and weight gain. Crushed seeds are used to make a poultice applied to scorpion and centipede bites. They are also used in medicines to increase strength and vitality, to cure venereal diseases and paralysis, and to stimulate formation of new tissue in the healing of sores and wounds. A mixture of powdered seeds and milk is used to increase sperm and stimulate lactation, and one of equal amounts of the pulverized seeds, root, and sugar is taken for health and vitality; it is also considered extremely beneficial for the vitality of semen. Root: Serves as an emmenagogue, tonic, aphrodisiac, and purgative. Boiled in water and reduced to one-third the starting volume, given with honey for cholera. With diuretic properties, they are used in preparations to strengthen the blood vessels. Root powder mixed with water is taken for dysentery. To treat edema in the abdominal area, crushed root is rubbed onto the stomach; to reduce edema in the joints of fingers and toes, it is formed into pieces and tied to the affected areas; the juice can be taken daily to cure paralysis and atrophied arms. Filtered oil from cooking root powder is rubbed onto affected areas to alleviate enlargement and hardening from elephantiasis.

Notes

In India the root is used as a tonic, diuretic, purgative; for nervous and renal diseases, dropsy; and for elephantiasis. The hairs on the pods are employed for stomach worms; the seed is used for impotency, urinary calculus, tonic, and as an aphrodisiac (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Pakistan the root is also employed to remedy nervous disorders, and delirium (Neptune-Rouzier 1997). In China, Guam, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia the uses of this species are noted as being similar to those of the other species in the genus (Perry 1980).

The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999), who notes that the chemical compound mucunaine, found in this species, is an irritant causing pruritus. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species as a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by Neuwinger (1994). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

29. Phyllodium Desv

Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. (= Desmodium pulchellum (L.) Benth.)

Range

Tropical America; now pantropical. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Leaf: Powder can be mixed with honey and licked to promote weight gain and increase strength and vitality. Skin disorders such as scabies, ringworm and eczema can be cured by rubbing them with the leaves twice a day over a period of time. Crushed and applied as a poultice over the bite to poisonous or venomous animals to neutralize the poison. Crushed and squeezed juice of leaves applied to visible symptoms of venereal disease. Boiled down to make a strong potion which when kept in the mouth while warm cures gum boils and inflammation of the gums. Mixed with mu-yar-gyi (Adhatoda vasica = Justicia adhatoda) leaves, chewed and kept in the mouth or the juice swallowed to cure dry coughs. Crushed with lime juice and applied to cure eczema. Pounded, mixed with the juice of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves, and applied to cure ringworm and leprosy. Drinking the liquid obtained from boiling the buds and the leaves will cure inflammation of the breathing passages and asthma, cause loose bowels, encourage urination and discharge of mucus in the stool). Flower: Crushed fine and applied as a rub to cure skin diseases. Seed: Astringent, can cure itching, coughs, asthma, ringworm, skin disorders, kills disease causing germs, promote good urination and cure leprosy. Root: Made into a paste, mixed with boric acid powder and hpan-kar (Terminalia chebula) fruit powder and applied to cure ringworm.

Notes

Notes

In Indonesia a decoction of the young leaves is used to treat malaria. In a number of Asian countries, stem wood is an ingredient in recipes used to make a decoction to treat liver trouble, urticaria (nettle rash), loss of appetite from gastrointestinal trouble, and rhinitis (Perry 1980).

Chemical research has revealed the presence of a poisonous alkaloid (Perry 1980).

References

Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Senna sulfurea (Collad.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (= Cassia glauca Lam.)

Bark: Used for anemia. Leaf: Used in medicines to treat stomach bloating, tumors, fevers, sores, diabetes, skin irregularities caused by blood problems, and throat ailments, as well as to protect against colds, leprosy, spleen inflammation, and germs. They are also used in remedies to neutralize venom from scorpion stings; and eaten to ease constipation, clear the mind, alleviate shooting pains, neutralize poisons, and prevent lung and heart disease. Preparations containing the leaves are taken to cleanse the blood. The juice from crushed leaves, mixed in equal amounts with dried ginger, peik-chin (Piper longum), and cane sugar, is inhaled to ease restlessness. For fever or influenza, the stir-fried leaves and onions are eaten. A mixture of the liquid from the leaves and the seed kernels from kyee-ni thee (Barringtonia acutangula) is eaten as a cure for impotency; a mixture of the crushed leaves and cow urine is inhaled as a cure for epileptic seizure. Leaf and Flower: For headaches on one side of the head, the juice from crushed flowers and leaves is inhaled through the nostril on the affected side. Flower: Boiled and given orally for night blindness. The juice from the crushed flowers is used as an eye drop solution for dim vision and watery eyes. Remedies made from the flowers are given to reduce fever. Root: For joint inflammation, a warmed root paste is applied topically.

Notes

Uses of this species in India, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and the Philippines are discussed in Perry (1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (= S. aegyptiaca (Poir.) Pers.)

Names

Myanmar: ye-tha-gyi. English: common sesban, Egyptian rattlepod.

Range

Old World tropics; tropical Asia. In Myanmar found in Sagaing.

Uses

Bark: Used for skin conditions, liquid from the crushed bark is given orally, and the seed paste is applied topically. It is also used to clear infections, promote new tissue formation, and heal chronic sores. Leaf: Used in maturative poultices. Leaf also used to treat poisoning, edema, and eye infections; to purify breast milk, open blocked mammary glands, and increase lactation. New mothers eat the leaves in a variety of forms, including in clear soups, boiled lightly, in salad, fried as fritters, or pickled. Juice from the crushed leaves is used as an eye drop solution to clear infection and to reduce fever. For swollen joints, aches, and pains, the liquid from boiled leaves is taken orally. Powder from the dried leaves is taken with honey or in sweet liqueurs as a tonic for strength and vitality. Seed: Component of remedies for irregular menstrual periods, liver inflammation, and lung infections. Root: Used in medicines to treat stomach bloating, tumors, fevers, sores, diabetes, skin irregularities caused by blood problems, and throat ailments, as well as to protect against colds, leprosy, spleen inflammation, and germs. They are also used in remedies to neutralize venom from scorpion stings.

Notes

In India the leaf is used in a poultice for suppuration of boils and rheumatic swelling. The seed is employed as a stimulant and astringent emmenagogue; also for diarrhea, spleen enlargement, and in ointments for skin eruptions (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Extracts from the flower of this species show antifertility activity (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

34. Spatholobus Hassk

Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.) Kuntze (= S. roxburghii Benth.)

Names

Myanmar: da-ma-nge, labanru, nwe-ni, pauk-nwe, rubanru. Hawaiian: maula, maulu.

Range

Asia: China; Indian subcontinent, including Bhutan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka; Indo-China, including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Leaf: Used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in Perry 1980).

In India the whole plant is used as a tonic for impotency and gonorrhea; a decoction, employed as a vermifuge, is made from the fruit. Oil obtained from the seeds is used for scabies, itch, eczema, and other skin diseases. The root is used for dyspepsia, diarrhea, rheumatism, fever, snakebite, asthma, urinary disorders, colic; also as a liniment on elephantiasis. An unspecified plant part is used as a tonic, laxative, and diuretic; also for bronchitis, febrile effects, bleeding piles, boils, and pimples (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

38. Xylia Benth

Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. (= X. dolabriformis Benth.)

Names

Myanmar: hpat, mai-salan, pkhay, praing, pran, prway, pyin, pyinkado. English: Burmese ironwood, irul.

Range

Native to Bangladesh, Cambodia, eastern India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Introduced into Africa, Philippines, Singapore. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Used as an astringent. Seed: Oil used to treat rheumatism.

Notes

In India the bark is used to treat gonorrhea, diarrhea, stop vomiting, and as a vermifuge (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Gentianaceae (Gentian family)

1. Exacum L

Exacum tetragonum Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: pa-deing-ngo. English: bicolor Persian violet.

Range

India and China south to New Guinea. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Use

Whole plant: Used in a tonic for fever.

Note

In India the whole plant is used as a tonic for fevers and as a stomachic (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Perry (1980).

2. Swertia L

Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C.B.Clarke

Names

English: bitter stick, clearing nut tree, Indian gentian.

Range

Eastern Asia - Himalayas.

Uses

A bitter. Plant [part(s) not given] used as an aperient and as a tonic. Dried plant imported to Indo-China and Malaya where it is used as a febrifuge. Used with success in a majority of fevers, especially typhoid.

Notes

In India the whole plant is used as a bitter, stomachic, anthelmintic, febrifuge, as well as for malarial fever, asthma, and liver disorders. Also taken with sandalwood in a paste to heal internal hemorrhage of stomach. A decoction of the root (with root of Acorus calamus) is used as a remedy for intermittent fever, leprosy, leucoderma, scabies and other skin diseases. An unspecified plant part is used for gravel in urine, atrophy, bronchitis, consumption, gonorrhea, bleeding gums, emaciation, puerperal fever, and also cooling, and curing thirst, biliousness, and inflammation (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reported constituents include chiratin, chiratogenin, ophelic acid, resin, and tannin (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Hydroleaceae (Waterleaf family)

1. Hydrolea L

Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl

Name

English: Ceylon hydrolea.

Range

Tropical America, Africa, and southeastern Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Yangon.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Leaf: Beaten to a pulp to make a dressing for foul ulcers (thought to have antiseptic and cleansing properties).

Notes

In Cambodia, India, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere, leaves are used for intestinal disorders; macerated leaves are applied as poultice to callous difficult ulcers for soothing and healing properties; also said to possess some antiseptic properties (Kham 2004).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Hypericaceae (Hypericum family)

1. Cratoxylum Blume

Cratoxylum formosum (Jacq.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Dyer (= C. prunifolium Dyer)

Names

Myanmar: bamachet, ma-chyangai, mye-mu-se, sa-thange-ohnauk. Thai: tiu khon tree.

Range

Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Lower Risk/least concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Bark, Leaf, Root: Given as a protective remedy to a women after childbirth.

Notes

Several species in the genus Cratoxylum appear to have some medicinal use. In Indo-China, the species C. pruniflorum is thought to have “marked digestive properties”, and, in combination with with Artemisia leaves, is administered to women in parturition (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Lamiaceae (Mint family)

1. Callicarpa L

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl

English: hill glory bower.

Range

South and southeastern Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf and Root: Used as a febrifuge.

Notes

In India the leaf is used for headache; also ground with leaves of Commelina bengalensis and applied as a plaster for sores on head. The flower (ground with fresh shoots of Bombax ceiba, made into pills, and these smeared with cream from cow milk) is used for ulcers of the palate. The root is used for rheumatism; ground with black pepper and used for involuntary cramps; and ground with leaves, roots, bulb, and bark of various other species, and given to drink with refuse of molasses for gravel (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China this species is used in a decoction as a remedy for leucorrhea (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents of the leaves of this species include clerodin (anthemintic property); glycerides of linolenic, oleic, stearic, and lignoceric acids; a sterol; a proteinase; and a peptidase (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Clerodendrum thomsoniae Balf.f.

Names

Myanmar: tike-pan, taik-pan-gyi. English: bag-flower, bleeding-heart vine, glory tree, tropical bleeding heart.

Range

West and West-Central tropical Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Plant used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in Nordal 1963).

Notes

Other members of the genus are reported as used medicinally in India, China, Thailand, Korea, and Japan for the treatment of such diseases as syphilis, typhoid, cancer, jaundice, and hypertension (Shrivastava and Patel 2007).

Major chemical compounds have been reported from this genus. These include phenolics, steroids, di- and tri-terpenes, flavonoids, volatile oils, etc. (Shrivastava and Patel 2007).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

3. Colebrookea Sm

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.

Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (= O. sanctum L.)

Names

Myanmar: kala-pi-sein, pin-sein-net. English: holy basil, sacred basil.

Range

Old World tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used as an expectorant and stomachic; also, in a decoction, as a mild febrifuge and carminative for infant diarrhea. Seed: Used to treat kidney diseases. Root: Employed as a diaphoretic.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The leaf is used as a stimulant, antiperiodic, diaphoretic, expectorant; also for fever, hemiplegic, constipation, liver disorders, cough (with black pepper and rice), diarrhea, and colds; the oil for antibacterial and insecticidal purposes. An infusion is used for digestive problems. Also used locally for ringworm and earache. The seed is used as a demulcent, laxative, and for urinary problems. The root is used for sudden collapse and in a decoction for malaria as a diaphoretic. Medicinal uses of the species in Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and the Philippines are discussed in Perry (1980).

Reported constituents of the volatile oil of O. tenuiflorum include methyl chavicol, cineole, linalool, methyl homo-antisic acid, caryophyllene, eugenol, eugenol methyl ether, and carvacrol. The mucilage contains hexuronic acid, pentoses, and ash; also, after hydolysis, xylose (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

8. Orthosiphon Benth

Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. (= O. stamineus Benth.)

Names

Myanmar: hsee-cho, thagyar makike, si-cho. English: cat’s whiskers, Java tea, kidney tea plant.

Range

Temperate and tropical Asia, Australia. Found cultivated throughout Myanmar.

Uses

This plant is most well-known as a diuretic and as a medicine for diabetes.

Leaf: Prepared as a herbal tea to alleviate kidney disorders, bladder diseases, and urinary problems as well as to treat aching joints.

Notes

In India the leaf is used as a diuretic, for nephrosis, and for edema; also used in an infusion for kidney and bladder diseases and rheumatism (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The medicinal uses of the species from Taiwan south to Palau, in the Philippines, and on the Malay Penisula are discussed in Perry (1980).

Reported chemical constituents include a glucoside and orthosiphon. The leaves contain volatile and essential oils; both the leaves and stems have a high potassium content, urea, and ureids (Perry 1980). An extract of the leaf has been found to lower blood sugar (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

9. Pogostemon Desf

Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (= P. patchouli Pellet.)

Names

Myanmar: thanat-pyit-see. English: patchouli.

Range

Native of southeastern Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used to treat kidney and bladder diseases. Used in making diuretics and medicines to cure shooting pains in the stomach. Juice taken with small amount of marijuana leaves when there is blood in the urine. Juice taken to relieve pain during menstruation.

Notes

In India an infusion of the leaf is used for menstrual troubles (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the whole plant is used for abdominal pain, cold, diarrhea, halitosis, headache, and nausea (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Medicinal uses of the species in China, on the Malay Peninsula, and in the Philippines are discussed in Perry (1980).

The species has been used in China for 100 years. The branches and leaves of P. cablin (introduced into China) are used as drug which is considered superior to the commercial drug consisting of dried aerial parts of Agastache rugosa (cultivated in China). The drug is considered carminative, stomachic, antivinous, antiemetic, and depurtive. It is useful in treating influenza and colds, headache, indigestion, fever, cholera, and the nausea of pregnancy (Perry 1980).

The whole plant is antiseptic and the oil is bactericidal (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The chemical constituents of its volatile oil include patchouli alcohol, cadinene, coerulein, benzaldehyde, and eugenal (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

10. Premna L

Premna amplectens Wall. ex Schauer

Names

Myanmar: sagale-amauk, yinbya-byu, wee-ek, hpak-si-so. English: surfacea, tatea.

Range

Pakistan and Sri Lanka to Myanmar. Now also in other Southeast Asian countries. Reported from Myanmar.

Uses

Root: Used as a decoction after childbirth.

Notes

Most members of this genus are employed in the treatment of fever; also headache, stomachache, and toothache. Other frequent uses are as a diuretic and laxative, for cold and cough, and also for boils (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Premna mollissima Roth (= P. latifolia Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: kyetyo, kyun-nalin, seiknan-gyi. English: black plum.

Range

China, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Philippines, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Root: A paste of the root is used for a local application after parturition.

Notes

In India the stem-bark is used for ringworm and blisters in the mouth; the leaf as a diuretic and for dropsy; and the root for syphilis and gonorrhea (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China, Indo-China, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Solmon Islands are discussed in Perry (1980).

The bark of the trunk contains two alkaloids, premnine and ganiarin. Premnine has bee found to lessen the force of heart contraction and dilate the pupils of the eyes (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Premna serratifolia L. (= P. integrifolia L.)

Myanmar: bebya, begyo, yinbya, yinbya-net, prang-gadawn (Kachin). English: blue fountain bush.

Range

South and southeastern Asia, and eastern Africa. Found growing naturally throughout the country, but especially in Upper Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Boiled lightly in water, the leaves are eaten in salads to relieve female-related disorders. New mothers eat the boiled-leaf salads to support healing, increase strength, and promote lactation. Leaf and Root: Used in preparations for fever, asthma, coughs, colds, and infected sores. They are also used to stimulate the appetite, improve digestion, and expel uterine leiomyomas. Root: For fevers and colds, they are crushed and brewed with water; used in a decoction after childbirth. Oil from cooking the roots is filtered and applied around the eyes to treat inflammation, itching, and infections. A mixture of- the roots with equal amounts of dried ginger and coriander seeds is boiled to half the starting volume and the reduction is ingested in the mornings and evenings to relieve bloating and nausea; one part powdered roots with 12 parts yogurt is boiled to half the starting volume and taken in small amounts in the mornings and evenings to alleviate edema; equal amounts of the powdered roots and powdered, dried ginger is taken with fresh ginger juice for colds, asthma, whooping cough, and bronchitis. To treat internal inflammations, such as those caused by diphtheria, and cysts arising from other conditions, a paste made from the powdered roots and rice washing water is applied externally at frequent intervals. Note: The powdered roots must be consumed only in very small amounts ranging from ~1.0 g to ~3.0 g.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). The plant’s medicinal uses in Indo-China, Indonesia, and the Malay Peninsula are discussed in Perry (1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

12. Salvia L

Salvia officinalis L.

Names

English: common sage, garden sage, kitchen sage, sage.

Range

Northern and central Spain to West Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Species used as a topical antiseptic and orally as a carminative and spasmolytic. Leaf: Used as a diaphoretic and stomachic.

Notes

The species is astringent, a stimulant, and is put into a gargle for sore throat (Perry 1980). In India the species is used for thrush and gingivitis; an infusion is used as a gargle and diaphoretic (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

The leaf and tops of young shoots yield an oil, which is carminative (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

13. Tectona L.f

Tectona grandis L.f.

Myanmar: kyaungban-gyi. English: five-leaved chaste tree, Indian privit.

Range

Southeastern Africa, Madagascar, eastern and southeastern Asia, Philippine Islands, Guam; naturalized in Florida.

Use

Fruit: Used as a sedative.

Notes

In China the stem-twigs are decocted for burns and scalds, and a twig infusion is used for anxiety, convulsions, cough, headache, and vertigo; the leaf is astringent, sedative, used for cholera, eczema, and gravel; the fruit for angina, cold, cough, deafness, gonorrhea, hernia, leucorrhea, and rheumatic difficulties; the root for colds and rheumatic ailments. The plant is also said to prevent malaria, and is used for bacterial dysentery and chronic bronchitis (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The medicinal uses of the species in China, Indo-China, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Palau are discussed in Perry (1980).

The leaves are bactericidal and insecticidal, and yield essential oil with aldehydes and ketones, phenolic derivatives, and cineol (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Vitex trifolia L.

Names

Myanmar: kyaung-pan. English: Indian wild pepper.

Range

Asia to Australia. Found growing in warmer parts of Myanmar, up to 915 m altitude.

Uses

Leaf: Used to treat skin infections, disorders of the spleen, and rheumatism. Also used in preparations to regulate menstruation and bowel function, stimulate healing of sores, control fevers, neutralize poisons, and promote vitality. The crushed leaf juice and stir-fried leaves are used to treat varicose veins and other circulatory conditions. The leaf juice is applied topically to heal chronic sores; mixed with a bit of sesame oil and honey, and swabbed inside the ear to alleviate earaches and to clear ear infection; taken by itself for skin conditions and together with the juice from ground roots of thet-yin-gyi (Croton persimilis) for bloating and edema. Water from boiling the leaves is ingested for weakness and weight loss, malaria, menstrual problems, and conditions related to birthing, as well as for coughs and colds in infants and young children. A salad of the leaves mixed with garlic is eaten to relieve bloating, indigestion, and dysentery. Pillows stuffed with the dried leaves are used for insomnia and brain conditions. Leaf and Flower: Used as febrifuge and emetic. Root: Ground, and a paste made from them is given to children for ingesting or inhaling to reduce fever and treat cooking fume-related sickness.

Notes

The medicinal uses of the species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of the species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Perry (1980) covers the medicinal uses of the species in the Malay Peninsula, Korea, China, and Indo-China, and Mongolia.

The essential oil of this species yields camphene, and pinene, terpenylacetate; the leaves contain aucubin, agunuside, casticin, orientin, isoorientin, and luteolin-7-glucoside; and the fruit contains vitricine. Leaf extracts have been found to inhibit the tuberculosis organism and also show anti-cancer activity (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

15. Volkameria L

Volkameria inermis L. (= Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn.)

Names

Myanmar: kywe-yan-nge, pinle-kyauk-pan. English: garden quinine, glory bower.

Range

Seacoast. South and southeastern Asia, Australia, and Pacific Islands. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf and Root: Used in fumigation after childbirth and for asthma and fever; also for scrofulous and venereal infections.

Notes

In India the fruit is used for infertility; the root for venereal disease (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the leaf is used as a depurative, a wash for skin diseases, and as a decoction for beri-beri; the seed is employed as an antidote for poisonous fish, crabs, etc. The plant is used in Guam and Samoa for fever, headache, hematemesis, pneumonia, stomachache, and wounds; and in the Solomon Islands, fumes from the steaming leaves are used to treat eye ailments, including blindness. Elsewhere the species is used for opthalmia and rheumatism (Duke and Ayensu 1985). Medicinal uses of this species in South China, Taiwan, Palau, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the Solomon Islands are discussed in Perry (1980).

The leaves contain an alkaloid-like compound, sterols, an aliphatic alcohol, an aliphatic ketone with glucose, fructose, sacccharose, resin, and gum (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Lauraceae (Laurel family)

1. Cinnamomum Schaeff

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet (= C. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees)

Names

Myanmar: na-lin-gyaw, maza (Kachin), nakzik (Chin), hman-thein, lulin-gyaw, tauku-ywe, thit-kyabo. English: wild cassia.

Range

Tropical and temperate Asia. Grows naturally throughout Myanmar, with the exception of the hot zone; especially found in Bago, Mandalay, and Sagaing.

Uses

Note: The interaction of the bark powder with jaggery can be fatal. Use of the bark powder for any treatment requires avoiding consumption of jaggery and all other sweet foods. Bark: Both the tree and root bark “open up vapors” and have cooling properties with activity against toxins. The ground bark is mixed with water and a small amount of salt to make a paste applied topically to deliver vapors of the medicine to alleviate scorpion stings and spider bites, aching body parts, areas of inflammation, and itchy patches. The paste is also applied externally or taken orally for other conditions, including exposure to detrimental cooking fumes, illnesses caused by persistent sores, and high fever with delirium. The paste with added salt is ingested for constipation. Bark, formed into balls with cooked rice, is toasted and soaked in water; the water from soaking is then used to make bark paste, which is taken for stomach bloating and distension, as well as for diarrhea. Bark paste made with water is given as a treatment for diphtheria, dengue hemorrhagic fever, severe diarrhea, female malaise, weakness, and fatigue. Bark paste made with commercially available menthol balm is applied topically or taken orally for problems experienced by those over the age of 50, including limb heaviness, aches and pains, tingling of the knees from excessive movement, pins and needles from sitting too long, and fatigue from exertion. Liquid from boiled bark is used as a wash for to accelerate healing of sores caused by threadworm infections. The paste is applied topically, in a circle around the eyes, as a remedy for aching eyes and dimming vision. A mixture of the powder and lemongrass powder is applied topically to alleviate soreness of breasts and taken orally to heal inflammation in the liver, lungs, and intestines. Bark powder is also inhaled to clear stuffy noses and sinus infections. A mixture of bark powder and water reserved from washing rice is used as a remedy for gonorrhea, intestinal and urinary infections, heart irregularities, dry lips, and dry throat.

Note

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J.Presl

Names

Myanmar: payuk, payoke-pin. English: camphor, camphor tree.

Range

China, Taiwan, Japan. Cultivated all over Myanmar; also, grows naturally in the temperate northern parts of the country.

Uses

Wood and Leaf: Serve as an antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and stimulant. Leaf: Oil extracted from leaves is mixed with shein-kho (Gardenia resinifera) and made into pellets taken during an asthma attack. The oil is also used in making medicines to treat dizziness, aches and pains, and various male and female related disorders. Camphor is placed on the teeth to relieve toothaches. It can be crushed with water and applied on scorpion sting; and, soaked in rose water, it is given orally to treat arsenic poisoning.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). The medicinal uses of the species in Korea, China, and Indo-China are discussed in Perry (1980).

Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Eberm.

Names

Myanmar: thit-jaboe. English: Ceylon cinnamon.

Range

Himalayas, in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and West Pakistan. In Myanmar, a cultivar that thrives in Tanintharyi Division, upper Chindwin, northern Shan State, Bamaw, and Rakhine State.

Use

Bark: Effective against disorders of bile, diarrhea, excessive bleeding, sweating, vomiting, nausea and motion sickness. Taking the bark powder together with Acacia catechu cures diarrhea. A paste of the bark is mixed with other medicines and given to patients to cure influenza, coughing, lack of semen, and dysentery. Boiled and drunk, it can cure dysentery. Oil: Pressed into an aching tooth to cure the pain. The oil can be used as ear drops to treat earaches. Up to 2–4 drops of the oil can be taken to treat bloated stomachs. About 2 drops of the oil can be given two to three times a day to treat typhoid.

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (= C. zeylanicum Blume)

Names

Myanmar: hmanthin, thit-kyabo. English: cinnamon.

Myanmar: bambwe, hou-no, mai-pinngo, sangawn-gmawt, thelaw. English: patana oak, slow match tree, tummy wood.

Range

Myanmar to the Malay Peninsula. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Used to treat snakebite. Leaf: Used to treat ulcers.

Notes

In India the bark is used for snakebite; the flower for prolapsus ani and fistula ani, also in preparations for cold and cough (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the bark is an ingredient in an emollient embrocation utilized as an antipyretic and antipruritic during the eruption of smallpox and chickenpox (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Liliaceae (Lily family)

1. Fritillaria L

Fritillaria cirrhosa D.Don (= F. roylei Hook.)

Names

Myanmar: gamone-kyet-thon-phyu, gamon-kyeethun-phyu, machit oo, machyit (Kachin). English: fritillaria.

Range

Eastern Asia - Himalayas. Cultivated in Myanmar. Found abundantly in Kachin State and other northern parts covered in ice; plants live under the ice and emerge only with melting of the ice.

Uses

Root (Bulb): With a bitter yet savory taste, the bulbs are said to promote longevity. They are considered very important to humans, and help to increase waning body heat. The plant is used to prevent and alleviate sores, asthma, anemia, dry coughs, cysts, problems with blood vessels and varicose veins; also aching joints, urination problems, chronic illnesses, and fevers. To cure asthma and leprosy, the bulb is powdered, boiled together with orange (tangerine) skin, and ingested. One teaspoon of a mixture of bulb powder soaked in half a large bottle (most likely 750 ml) of honey is taken (once in the morning and once at night) for male-related conditions. The bulb powder is also used to promote good sleep, appetite, and longevity.

Notes

The species has been recorded as medicinally useful for abcess, snakebite and as a scorpion and spider antidote; as an expectorant and for cough, asthma, fever, eye, viscera; labor, lactogogue; rheumatism, dysuria, hemorrhage, marrow, cancer, tuberculosis, syphilis; poison (Duke 2009). In China there are at least seven species of Fritillaria, all used in the same way. The bulbs are considered to be “especially good for the lungs” and to dissolve phlegm; they are also used to treat swollen throat (Peritonsillar abscess) (Perry 1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Linaceae (Flax family)

1. Linum L

Linum usitatissimum L.

Names

Myanmar: bi-thawar, hnan-kyat, migyaung-kumbat, paiksan. English: flax, linseed.

Range

Probably Asia; an ancient cultigen, widely grown in temperate regions for fiber, and seed for linseed oil. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Seed: Used to treat ulcers and for production of linseed oil; oil used as a base for ointments.

Notes

In India the bark and leaf are used to treat gonorrhea; the flower is a cardiac tonic and nervine; dried ripe seeds are used as a demulcent poultice for rheumatism and gout, as well as employed internally for gonorrhea and urinogenital irritations; and the seed’s oil is mixed with limewater and applied to burns (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the whole plant and its oil are used in making medicines; the seed is used for emollient cataplasm and catarrh; and oilseed cake is used to treat mental deficiencies in adolescents (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

The oilseed cake contains the amino acid arginine and 4% dry weight glutamic acid. L-glutamic acid is used in its free state in the treatment of metal deficiencies in infants and adolescents (Perry 1980). The genus Linum contains the anti-cancer agents 3’-demethylpodophyllotoxin, podophyllotoxin, and beta-sitosterol (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Loganiaceae (Strychnine family)

1. Strychnos L

Strychnos potatorum L.f.

Names

Myanmar: khabaung yay-kyi, mango-taukpa-tit (Mon). English: clearing nut tree, water-filter nut.

Range

Tropical Africa, tropical Asia, especially eastern India and eastern Myanmar. Found growing naturally not only in evergreen tropical forests, but also elsewhere around the country.

Uses

Note: This plant can cause blindness; caution is required to avoid contact with the eyes when using it to treat eye disorders and other conditions.

Seed: Astringent and sweet, the easily digestible seeds are known to clarify water (similar to alum) and to relieve thirst and heat, neutralize poison, alleviate eye infections, and kill germs. A paste made from the ground seeds is applied topically in a circle around the eyes to treat eye disorders, improve vision, and clear blood spotting from the whites of the eyes; combined with honey it is applied topically in a circle around the eyes for cataracts. A mixture of seed paste with liquid yogurt taken for seven days is considered a cure for chronic, treatment-resistant diarrhea. A mixture of milk and seed paste is given as a remedy for gonorrhea. A mixture of seed ash and sugar is taken to alleviate bleeding hemorrhoids. The paste made with distilled water is used to treat excessive urination. Powdered seed coats are used to induce vomiting and treat dysentery.

Note

In India a paste made from the root is applied locally to painful areas (mainly due to internal injury); the seed is used for a tonic, demulcent, stomachic, sedative, emetic and also for diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and eye troubles (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Strychnos wallichiana Steud. ex A.DC. (= S. cinnamomifolia Thwaites)

Name

Chinese: chang zi ma quia.

Range

China, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.

Uses

Root: Used to treat elephantiasis and epilepsy.

Note

In India a decoction made from the root is used for elephantiasis, ulcers, rheumatism, epilepsy, and fever (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Lythraceae (Henna family)

1. Lagerstroemia L

Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.

Names

Myanmar: pyinma-ywetthey. English: queen’s crape myrtle.

Range

India to Southeast Asia and Australia.

Uses

Bark and Leaf: Purgative. Leaf: Used to treat diabetes. Seed: A narcotic. Root: Astringent.

Notes

In India the bark and leaf are used as a purgative; the fruit is applied locally for aphthae of the mouth; the seed is used as a narcotic; and the root as a febrifuge, stimulant, and astringent (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the root and bark are used as an astringent, and the leaves and fruit have hypoglycemic properties in treating diabetes mellitus. On the Malay Peninsula a decoction of the bark is ingested to treat abdominal pain and dysentery; the leaves are made into poultices to treat malaria and cracked feet. In Indonesia a cold infusion of the bark is used to treat diarrhea. In the Philippines the leaves are pounded or rubbed with salt and applied to the forehead and temples as a remedy for headache; a decoction of the old leaves and ripe fruit, taken orally, is considered to be the best antidiabetic part of the plant (if not available, younger and mature leaves can be used as a substitute); a decoction of the bark is drunk for hematuria, and that of the roots is drunk for jaundice as well as during puerperium (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents of leaves include tannin, glucose, and an antidiabetic principle; also an unnamed alkaloid has been found in the seed (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

2. Punica L

Punica granatum L.

Names

Myanmar: thale. English: pomegranate.

Range

Southeastern Europe to South Asia. Also naturalized, and widespread in cultivation.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Fruit: Used as an anthelmintic and astringent.

Notes

The plant is widely cultivated for its edible fruit and medicinal uses: The bark is used in a gargle for sore throat, bad breath, and as a wash for nosebleed (for the first two illnesses a decoction of the rind is used); a decoction of tender leaves serves as a gargle and another of the leaves and roots is drunk as a remedy for irregular menses; a plaster of the crushed leaves is applied to itch; crushed stem is similarly used; the fruit is rich in tannin (and thus astringent); a decoction of the rinds or fruit is used for diarrhea and dysentery and may also be applied as a wash or an injection against hemorrhoid and leucorrhea; the buds, flowers, and bark of the flowers mixed with sesame oil makes a dressing for burns; the fruit is both bechic and laxative; the root bark is used throughout the East as a specific for tapeworm, and is also anthelmintic against other intestinal worms (Perry 1980).

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of the species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The bark contains the alkaloids pelletierine, isopelletierine, methylpelletierine, pseudopelletierine, and considerable tannin; it has also been reported that the plant has a bacteriostatic effect (Perry 1980). Seeds and leaves of Punica granatum contain the hepatotoxic compound punicalagin, an oestrogenic chemical known as oestrone, and a form of pelletierine which is used for the expulsion of tapeworms (Lan et al.1998).

The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by Ross (1999). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

3. Woodfordia Salisb

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz

Names

Myanmar: pan-le, panswe, pattagyi, yetkyi. English: fire-flame bush, loosestrife, woodfordia.

Range

Southeast Asia, including Madagascar, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China, and Indonesia. In Myanmar found in Chin and Mandalay.

Conservation status

Lower Risk/least concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Flower: Used to treat bowel complaints.

Notes

On the Malay Peninsula the species is as an ingredient of a preparation to make a barren women fertile, a powder spread on a mother’s abdomen, and a drink given at the time of childbirth. In Indonesia the charred and pulverized fruit-bearing twigs provide an astringent powder sprinkled on wounds, and on the navel cord of newborn babies; the flower, leaf and fruit are used as an astringent to treat dysentery and sprue, as a diuretic against rheumatism, and also in treating dysuria and hematuria (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents include a tannin and a red pigment (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Magnoliaceae (Magnolia family)

1. Magnolia L

Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre (= Michelia champaca L.)

Names

Myanmar: saka-wah, chyamka, laran (Kachin), kyom par (Mon), sam lung, mawk (Shan). English: golden champak, michelia, yellow champak.

Range

Temperate and tropical Asia. Plant grows naturally in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Plant sweet and astringent with cooling properties, the flowers, leaves, fruits, bark, and roots are employed in medicines to increase sperm, promote heart function, and control bile and phlegm, as well as in preparations to alleviate vomiting and hemorrhaging of blood, urethral pain, leprosy, poisoning, itching, rashes, and sores. Bark: Used as an antidote, anthelmintic, and diuretic; to treat intermittent fever; also used in medicines to treat leprosy. The powdered bark is mixed with honey and licked to cure dry coughs. A decoction of bark is used as a remedy for chronic gas disorders and inflammation of the joints. Leaf: Used to treat colic. Water from soaking the young leaves is used as eye drops to cleanse the eyes and strengthen vision. A mixture of the juice from the crushed leaves and honey is given to ease chest pain and expel parasites, including threadworm and roundworm. Flower: Used to treat leprosy. A mixture of the crushed flowers and cold water is used as a diuretic and as a remedy for urinary tract and bladder problems. A decoction of the flowers is taken for gastric pain, gas disorders, kidney conditions, and gonorrhea. Fruit: The skin of the fruit is used in medicines to treat leprosy. Fruit, Seed: A paste made with water and either the fruits or the seeds is applied to heal cysts and boils on the thighs. Root: A mixture of yogurt with the crushed dried root or bark is applied as a poultice to heal sores.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) gives the medicinal uses of the species in China, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia.

Reported chemical constituents of the species include volatile oil, cineole, isoeugenol, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde, p-cresol methyl ether, and alkaloid (alkaloid of the bark tested and found to not be poisonous) (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Malpighiaceae (West Indian Cherry family)

1. Hiptage Gaertn

Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz

Names

Myanmar: bein-nwe, nwe-nathan-gwin. English: hiptage.

Range

Sri Lanka, southeastern Asia, Philippine Islands, Taiwan. From Myanmar to Timor. Cultivated in the tropics.

Uses

Bark: A bitter. Leaf: Used as a remedy for skin diseases.

Notes

In Indonesia the pounded bark is applied to fresh wounds (Perry 1980).

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

A glycoside-like substance, hiptagin, has been found in this species (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Malvaceae (Mallow family)

1. Abelmoschus Medik

Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench (= Hibiscus esculentus L.)

Names

Myanmar: yonbade. English: lady’s finger, wild okra.

Range

Tropical Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Fruit: Used as stomachic and emollient.

Notes

In India the root is used in a decoction for impotency (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China, Indo-China, and the Philippines.

Medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Abelmoschus moschatus Medik.

Names

Myanmar: balu-wah, kon-kado, taw-wah. English: musk mallow.

Range

Tropical Asia. In Myanmar, found in Magway, Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.

Uses

Leaf and Root: Use for poultice. Flower and Fruit: Said to be a remedy for spermatorrhea. Seed: Said to have stomachic, tonic, diuretic, antihysteric, stimulant, and antispasmodic properties. Root: Pulverized and used to poultice boils and swellings.

Notes

In India the seed is used as a stimulant, antispasmodic, stomachic, tonic, carminative, and aphrodisiac (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and Indonesia.

Reference

Perry (1980).

2. Abroma Jacq

Abroma augustum (L.) L.f.

Names

Myanmar: mway-ma-naing, mway-say, mway-seik-phay-pin, nga-be, ulat-kam-bala. English: devil’s cotton, Indian hemp.

Range

Himalayas, northern India, east to China, Micronesia, and Malaysia. In Myanmar, found in Kachin.

Use

The plant is used for menstrual disorder (part unspecified by Nordal 1963).

Notes

In India fresh or dried root-bark is used as a uterine tonic and emmenagogue; fresh juice is used for congestive and neuralgic dysmenorrhea (Jain and DeFilipps (1991). In Indonesia the root of this species is applied for itch; in the Philippines the root is used as an emmenagogue, and is considered especially useful for various forms of dysmenorrhea (Perry 1980).

The root-bark contains little alkaloid, much glucoside, resinous matter, much magnesium salts, calcium, and phosphates (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

3. Bombax L

Bombax ceiba L. (= Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl)

Names

Myanmar: kadung, kawl-tung-peng, kroik, letpan, let-pau, mai-nio. English: bombax, Indian kapok, red cottontree, red silk-cotton, silk-cottontree, simal.

Range

Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Astringent and diuretic. Leaf, Flower: Used for diabetes. Root: Astringent and diuretic; considered to have tonic properties (including sometimes the young root).

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) discusses the uses of this species in China, Indo-China, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

4. Ceiba Mill

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.

Names

Myanmar: le-moh-pin, lewah, thinbaw-letpan. English: capoc, ceiba, kapok, silk-cottontree, white silk-cottontree.

Range

Nicolson (1979) regards the original range as pantropical. Bornstein (1989) indicates that it is native from Mexico south to northern South America and the West Indies, and introduced and more or less naturalized in the Old World. Villiers (1973) notes an American origin for the plant, and that its presence in Gabon, West Africa is rarely in primary forest, and it is a species of zones occupied or cultivated by man. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used in the treatment of gonorrhea. Root: Useful tonic; also employed as a diuretic. Juice from the roots is used to treat diabetes. The gum is used as a tonic, astringent, laxative, and restorative.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines.

Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995) and Bekele-Tesemma (1993).

References

Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan (1967), Perry (1980).

5. Gossypium L

Gossypium barbadense L.

Names

Antiviral activity has been detected utilizing an extract of the plant (Vijyan et al. 2004).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

9. Kleinhovia L

Kleinhovia hospita L.

Names

Myanmar: o-dein, pashu-phet-wun. English: guest tree.

Range

Tropical Asia, tropical eastern Africa, and Australia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Seed: Used to treat dysentery.

Notes

In the Philippines a decoction of the leaves of this species provides a treatment for scabies, and also locally for all forms of dermatisis (Perry 1980).

The species contains prussic acid, a triterpinoid, and an essential oil (Perry 1980). The chemical betulin, extracted from the fruit, has been found to be an anti-carcinomic, anti-feedant, anti-flu, anti-HIV, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-viral, cytotoxic, hypolipemic, a prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitor, and topoisomerase-I-inhibitor (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

10. Kydia Roxb

Kydia calycina Roxb.

Uses

Bark, Leaf: Used in skin diseases (smallpox). Leaf: Used as a styptic. Flower: Used as a tonic.

Notes

In India the plant is considered antiseptic, depurative, and tonic; also employed for eruptions, fever, inflammation, leprosy, menorrhagia, puerperium, smallpox, sores, and tumors (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

In South China a tincture of the root of another species in the genus, Pterospermum heterophllum, is drunk to treat rheumatism and ostealgia; on the Malay Peninsula, the bark of P. javanicum is used in a poultice for abdominal complaints; in the Philippines the bark and flowers of P. diversifolium are charred and mixed with the glands of another species to cause suppuration for smallpox (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Maranta arundinacea L.

Names

Myanmar: taung-sun, thinbaw-adalut. English: American arrowroot, arrowroot, maranta.

Myanmar: byin-gale, lee-ko-kee, me-byaung, miat, mi-nauk. English: ironwood tree.

Range

Tropical India. In Myanmar, found in Kayin, Rakhine, Taninthayi, Yangon.

Uses

Bark: Used in a fomentation. Leaf: Astringent.

Notes

In Indo-China an infusion of the bark and leaves is used to treat fever; in India a decoction of the roots is used as an emmenagogue, and an infusion of the leaves is astringent and used to treat ophthalmia (Khare 2007). The leaves have strong anti-inflamatory and analgesic properties (Nualkaew et al. 2009).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Meliaceae (Mahogany family)

1. Aglaia Lour

Aglaia cucullata (Roxb.) Pellegr. (= Amoora cucullata Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: myauk-le-sik, thit-ni. English: amoora, Pacific maple.

Range

Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady and Rakhine.

Conservation status

Data Deficient [DD] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Leaf: Used for inflammation. Seed: Used to treat rheumatism.

Notes

Potent cytotoxic rocaglamide derivatives have been extracted from the fruits of this species (Chumkaew et al. 2006). Five compounds were isolated from an extract of the stem bark of A. cucullata. These included fridelin, stigmasterol, B-sitosterol, betulinic acid, and caffeic acid (Rahman et al. 2005b).

Reference

Perry (1980).

2. Aphanamixis Blume

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker (= A. rohituka (Roxb.) Pierre)

Names

Myanmar: chaya-kaya, ta-gat-net, than-that-gyi, thit-ni. English: rohituka, white cedar.

Range

Low to middle elevations in mountainous regions. Sri Lanka, southeastern Asia, Sumatra; Pacific Islands (Solomon islands). In Myanmar, found in Taninthayi and Yangon.

Conservation status

Lower Risk/least concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Bark: Used as an astringent.

Notes

In Taiwan oil pressed out of the seed is used in medicine, also industry; in Indonesia a decoction of the bark is ingested as a remedy for chest pain associated with a cold (Perry 1980).

Powderd bark is used to treat diseases of the liver, including jaundice; enlarged spleen; anemia; internal tumors; abdominal diseases, including ascitis; intestinal worms; and urinary disorders; also a root paste is used for leucorrhoea (Khare 2004).

The sap from a tapped tree is said to be poisonous; also, traces of alkaloid and a poisonous bitter substance have been found in the fruit wall (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

3. Azadirachta A.Juss

Azadirachta indica A.Juss.

Names

Myanmar: tama, tamaga, margosa, neem. English: Indian lilac.

Range

Tropical Asia; also cultivated. Grows naturally in the hot regions of Myanmar.

Uses

Whole plant: Bitter in taste, hot and sharp when digested, and with cooling properties, the flowers, sap, oil, bark, leaves, fruits, stems, and twigs are known to dispel gas, phlegm, and bile. Sap: Used in making tonics and digestives. The oil, which is applied topically for itching and rashes, is ingested for deworming. Gum: Used as a demulcent and tonic. Bark: Used as a tonic. Also, made into a paste and taken with salt to reduce fever. The inner bark is also made into a paste but applied topically to alleviate joint aches and pains. A decoction of the bark reduced to one-third its starting volume is used as a mouthwash to relieve toothaches. Leaf, Bark, and Oil: Used in treatment of skin diseases; also, as a tonic, anthelmintic, and insecticide. Leaf: Crushed leaves are made into a poultice applied as a remedy for scabies and boils. A decoction of the leaves is used as a wash to alleviate rashes, itching, and bumps on the skin. Their juice is used as an eyewash, and to relieve itching and heat. Powdered after roasting until charred leaves are mixed with salt and used daily as toothpaste to prevent toothaches, as well as to whiten and strengthen teeth; the bare twigs are used as toothpicks to help keep the teeth clean. Pulped leaves are applied to psora and other pustular eruptions. Oil, Leaf and Fruit: Utilized as a local stimulant and as an insecticide. Flower: Used as a stomachic; also, inhaled to alleviate dizziness. Fruit: Eaten daily as a remedy for urinary infections.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in East and Southeast Asia are discussed in Perry (1980). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999).

Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents, and pharmacological activity of this species are discussed by Ross (2001).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

4. Chukrasia A.Juss

Chukrasia tabularis A.Juss.

Range

India and Indo-China south to Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.

Use

Bark: Used as a strong astringent.

Notes

In India the bark is applied externally to ulcers, used for chronic infantile dysentery, antiperient, tonic, and astringent; the flower is used as an enmenagogue (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the bark is considered to be tonic, antiperiodic, and antirheumatic; in Indonesia the bark of the red form is used as an astringent and tonic, considered good for treating chronic diarrhea, dysentery, and other intestinal problems (Perry 1980).

An extract of the leaves has antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus; leaf tips and Curcuma are applied to swellings (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

8. Walsura Roxb

Walsura pinnata Hassk. (= W. elata Pierre)

Name

English: heynea.

Range

Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, South China, Taiwan, Indo-China, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippines, Moluccas, and New Guinea.

Uses

Bark: Part of a compound decoction for diarrhea and dysentery.

Note

The bark (rich in tannin) is astringent (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

9. Xylocarpus (Lam.) M.Roem

Xylocarpus granatum J.Koenig

Name

English: cannonball mangrove.

Range

Mangrove forests. China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; East Africa; and West Pacific islands. In Myanmar found in Ayeyarwady, Rakhine, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Whole plant: Astringent. Bark: Remedy for dysentery. Fruit and Seed: An antidiarrheic; peels of fruits or seed used as poultice on swellings, and ash of seed applied to itches. Bark and Root: Strong astringent. Root: Used to treat cholera.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The bark is used as an astringent and febrifuge; also for diarrhea, dysentery, and abdominal problems. The fruit is used to treat elephantiasis and breast swelling; the seed kernel for a bitter tonic, and the seed (mixed with sulfur and coconut oil) in an ointment for itch.

Reference

Perry (1980).

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M.Roem.

Names

Myanmar: kyana, kyat-nan, pinle-ohn, pinle-on. English: puzzlenut tree.

Range

Throughout most of Old World tropics to Australia, Fiji, and Tonga.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Whole plant: Astringent. Bark: Remedy for dysentery. Fruit and Seed: An antidiarrheic; peels of fruits or seed used as poultice on swellings, and ash of seed applied to itch. Bark and Root: Strong astringent. Root: Used to treat cholera.

Note

Perry (1980) discusses the uses of this species from Myanmar to the Philippines.

Reference

Perry (1980).

Menispermaceae (Moonseed family)

1. Cissampelos L

Cissampelos pareira L.

Names

Myanmar: kywet-nabaung. English: false pareira brava, velvet leaf.

Range

Pantropic, especially India and Pakistan. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Sagaing, and Taninthayi.

Uses

Whole plant: A paste is made and applied locally to treat inflammatory conditions of the eye. Leaf: Used for cooling. Root: used as a febrifuge, diuretic, tonic, stomachic, and in prolapsus uteri.

Notes

In Indo-China a decoction of the roots is used for colic and blennorrhea; in the Philippines leaves are antiscabious, also applied to snakebites; a decoction of the roots is diuretic, lithontriptic, pectoral, febrifuge, diaphoretic, emmanagogue, tonic, and sedative; roots are chewed and juice swallowed for abdominal pains and dysentery (Perry 1980). The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of the species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The chemical composition of the species includes alkaloids, hayatine, hayatinine, quecitol, and sterol Perry (1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

2. Tinospora Miers

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.

Names

Myanmar: hsin-doan manwai, sindon-ma-nwe. English: heart-leaved moonseed.

Range

Tropical Asia. Naturalized and cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical regions of Pakistan, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar in damp forests and on hills.

Uses

Whole plant: Hot, spicy, bitter, and astringent in taste, the five parts (root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit) are known for promoting strength and longevity, “calming the blood”, stimulating appetite, promoting digestion, and controlling fevers, sores, and urinary disorders. A decoction reduced to one-third the starting volume is taken to neutralize poisons. The plant can be mixed and boiled together with myin-hkwar (Centella asiatica) leaves to alleviate heart palpitations and anxiety. Thin slices of the plant are eaten frequently to stop vomiting of blood; a decoction can be reduced to one-fourth its starting volume is used to ease chronic joint inflammation; plant also used in making medicines to treat gas and bile problems, urinary tract infections, menstrual disorders, earaches, and phlegm imbalances. Stem, Leaf: Used as stomachic and cholagogue. Leaf: Juice from crushed leaves is slightly warmed and used as an ear wash to alleviate earaches. A mixture of the leaves with equal parts of lauk thay (Desmodium triquetrum), ohn hnwai (Aerva javanica), thinbaw maizali (Senna alata), and kone hti-kayone (Mimosa pudica) leaves is made into a tea to promote longevity and prevent illnesses.

Note

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Moraceae (Fig. family)

1. Antiaris Lesch

Antiaris toxicaria Lesch.

Names

Myanmar: hmya-seik, hkang-awng, aseik. English: upas tree.

Range

Tropical Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia to Philippine Islands and Fiji. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, Mon, Sagaing, and Yangon.

Uses

Latex: Used as a heart tonic and febrifuge; also as an arrow poison. Seed: Has good febrifuge and antidysenteric properties (these good uses have also been mentioned for the leaves and bark).

Notes

In India the seed is used for dysentery and as a febrifuge (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). A tribe in Borneo uses the latex in decoction as a febrifuge; they also apply it to festering wounds and snakebites (Perry 1980). The leaves and bark are said to have good febrifuge and antidysenteric properties; also the seed (Perry 1980).

Reported chemical constituents of this species include a toxic glycoside; alpha-, beta-, gamma-antiarin; antiarol; and fats (Perry 1980). Throughout the East, the toxic sap (latex) from this species is known for its use as an arrow or dart poison, and much has been written about it. It proves fatal, however, only when it reaches the bloodstream, and can be taken into the mouth without any ill effects (Perry 1980). The juice, in very small quantity, is a mild circulatory and cardiac stimulant, but in large doses it acts as a myocardial poison; and has a strong digitalis-like action (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

2. Artocarpus J.R.Forst. & G.Forst

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

Names

Myanmar: mak-lang, mung-dung, ndung, pa-noh, panwe, peinne. English: jackfruit.

Range

India. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Employed as poultice to treat ulcers and abscesses. Sap: Utilized for same purposes as the bark. Seed: Used to treat indigestion. Root: Used to treat diarrhea, and in a compound extract for fever.

Notes

In India the leaf is fried with the leaves of Emblica and Azadirachta, mixed with mustard oil and applied on sores, smallpox, carbuncles, and used as an anthelmintic; the flower us employed during childbirth to clear the fetus (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China latex from the stem is used for abscesses and ulcers; the bark is employed as a gargle; the leaf is used for diarrhea; and the ash made from the root is used for diarrhea and worms, and is also taken after childbirth (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The fruit pulp and seeds are considered cooling, tonic, and pectoral. In Indo-China the wood is used as a sedative to treat convulsions, boiled leaves are given to both animals and women to activate the secretion of milk, and the sap is considered antisyphilitic and a vermifuge. On the Malay Peninsula and in the Philippines, the ashes of the leaves, with or without oil, are applied to treat ulcers and wounds (Perry 1980).

The latex contains caoutchouc, resin, and cerotic acid (Duke and Ayensu 1985). The wood contains a yellow pigment, morin, cyanomaclurin; the bark has tannin; cerotic acid is found in the latex; and the fruit an pulp have sugar, protein, fiber, and ash (Perry 1980). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action and medicinal uses of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990).

Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this plant are given in Katende et al. (1995).

References

Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Artocarpus lakoocha Wall. ex Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: mai-mak-hat, mayauklok-ni, meik-mahot, myauk-laung, myauk-lok. English: monkey-jack.

Range

India to Myanmar. Cultivated for edible fruit. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Uses

Juice and Seed: Used as a purgative. Bark: An astringent.

Notes

In India the bark and exudation are used externally for spleen complaints; the seed is used as a purgative (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the root is employed as a tonic and deobstruent, and the leaves are used in treating dropsy (Perry 1980).

The stem yields two triterpenes, B-amyrin acetate and lupeol acetate (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

3. Ficus L

Ficus benjamina L.

Names

Myanmar: kyet-kadut, nyaung-lun, nyaung-thabye. English: Benjamin tree, Java flower, laurel, small-leaved rubber plant, tropical laurel, weeping laurel.

Range

India, southeastern Asia, the Malay Archipelago, and northern tropical Australia. In Myanmar, found in Rakhine and Yangon.

Use

Leaf: Applied to ulcers.

Notes

In India the milky juice of the plant is used to treat whitening of the cornea of the eye; a decoction of the leaf, mixed with oil, is applied externally to ulcers (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China the latex is mixed with alcohol and prescribed for shock, and the pounded roots are applied to poison arrow wounds (Perry 1980).

Cerotic acid has been found in the milky sap (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Ficus hispida L.f.

Names

Myanmar: ka-aung, kadut. English: country fig, hairy fig.

Range

Tropical Asia from India to northern Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Uses

Used to treat diabetes (plant part not given in Nordal 1963). Fruit: Used in poultices.

Notes

Note

In India the bark and fruit are made into a bath for the treatment and cure of leprosy; the fruit is used for aphthous complaints; and juice from the root is used for bladder maladies, juice also boiled in milk for visceral disorders (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

4. Streblus Lour

Streblus asper Lour.

Names

Myanmar: hkajang-nai, mai-hkwai, okhne. English: Siamese rough bush.

Range

China, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Sagaing, and Taninthayi.

Uses

Bark: Used as a remedy to treat diarrhea. Leaf: Decoction of the dried leaves administered for dysentery. Root: Used to treat ulcers.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The latex is employed for pneumonia, as astringent and antiseptic for curing sore heels, swellings, applied on temples as a sedative for neuralgia; the bark is used for diarrhea, slow pulse, gravel (with two other species), other urinary diseases, colic, menorrhagia, cholera (with one other species), and dysentery; the stem is used for toothache; the leaf as a galactagogue, poutice for swellings, and for eye diseases; the seed is used for piles, diarrhea, epistaxia, and locally on leucoderma; the root is used on ulcers, boils, and swellings, and for dysentery. Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of this species in Thailand, Indo-China, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

The bark “contains a bitter material resembling the poisonous principle of Antiaris toxicaria, but the leaves are not poisonous”; also, the latex contains considerable resin and a little rubber (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Moringaceae (Horseradish Tree family)

1. Moringa Adans

Moringa oleifera Lam.

Names

Myanmar: dan-da-lun, sort-htmaine (Mon). English: Ben nut, drumstick tree, horseradish tree.

Range

India. Widely cultivated and naturalized in the tropics. Found throughout Myanmar. Also, cultivated there as a vegetable.

Uses

Sap: Held in mouth to treat tooth decay. Bark: Slightly sweet and efficacious, stimulates the palate and is good for digestion. Used as an astringent. Freshly obtained liquid applied in the ear to treat earaches and ear infections. Bark and Leaves: Used as a heart stimulant. Leaf: Made into a soup with garlic, galangal (Alpina galanga or A. officinarum), and meik-thalin (Zingiber cassumnar) for arrested menstruation. When boiled in water down to a third of the original volume, and taken as a soup, will bring down high blood pressure. Root: Crushed, then 1 tablespoon of the liquid taken to treat laryngitis and sore throat; crushed and mustard seed added in equal amounts, soaked in water, and taken three times a day for indigestion and bloated stomach; boiled in water down to a third and tablespoon taken daily to treat cancer of the stomach. Root: Crushed into powder and combined with paranawar (Boerhavia diffusa) root powder in equal amounts, cooked with coconut milk and honey, and one tablespoon taken in morning and evening as a tonic to give strength and longevity; crushed and used as a poultice for inflammation; and liquid from crushed root taken with milk to treat diabetes. Flower: Used in making medicines to treat edema, dropsy, boils, sores, and gas. Fruit: Cooked and given to children to keep them free of round and thread worms; made into a powder and combined with sugar to treat excessive urination. Seed: Used to cure headaches and for poisoning. Also, made into a powder and applied to the ear to cure earaches and infections. Oil from the seed is used in treating sores, rashes, and itches.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are described in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999).

Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). The medicinal uses of Moringa oleifera in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). A pharmacognostical profile, including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa, is given in Iwu (1993). The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of M. oleifera on a worldwide basis are discussed by Ross (1999). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997).

Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by Katende et al. (1995) and Bekele-Tesemma (1993). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Myristicaceae (Nutmeg family)

1. Myristica Gronov

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Names

Myanmar: zar-date-hpo, zar-pwint. English: mace, nutmeg.

Range

East Indies. A cultivar that thrives in Tanintharyi Division, Myeik and Mawlamyaing townships; likes hot and humid climates; prefers ravines close to coastal areas.

Conservation status

Data Deficient [DD] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Myristica fragrans has an astringent, bitter, and hot taste. It is used in preparations for semen control and hemorrhoid relief, and also considered an important component of thway-hsay (literally means “blood medicine”), the traditional blood purification mixture, as well as tonics and medicines for male and female maladies. Unspecified plant parts are taken orally with warm water and sugar for blood purification, indigestion, insomnia, and tumors; with warm water alone, the mixture is used for gas, colic, diarrhea, and menstrual disorders. Oil: Easily digestible and fragrant, nutmeg oil stimulates appetite, increases strength, and controls fevers. M. fragrans is combined with tha-na-kha (Limonia acidissima), taungtan-gyi (Premna integrifolia), and turpentine oil for external use in the treatment of tumors. Fruit: Given as a remedy for chronic diarrhea, digestive problems, spleen inflammation, and gas pain. Seed: A paste of ground seeds and honey is eaten to strengthen a weak heart and alleviate male-related dysentery. The paste made with cold water is eaten, licked, or applied all over the body to cure cholera; it is applied to the outer ear to relieve inflammation, and licked to overcome nausea. Seed paste applied topically clears pimples.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997).

Traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of this species are discussed by Ross (2001). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are noted in Fleming (2000). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

Nutmeg contains myristicin, a hallucinogenic substance that is dangerous when ingested in large amounts (fewer than three seeds). One product of the fruits and flowers of Myristica fragrans is nutmeg oil, which causes convulsions after being ingested and has hypnotic activity from the chemical isolemicin; fruits and leaves also contain the reputedly psychotomimetic compound myristicin, borneol which affects the central nervous system, and the low grade hepatocarcinogen known as safrole (Lan et al. 1998). The grated or powdered seed is the source of nutmeg, and the aril provides the source of mace.

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Ministry of Health (2001).

Nordal (1963).

4. Syzygium P.Browne ex Gaertn

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry (= Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.)

Names

Myanmar: lay-hnyin. English: clove, clove tree.

Range

The Moluccas. Widely cultivated in warm regions. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Flower: Buds (cloves sun-dried buds) are sharp, spicy and bitter in taste; regarded as having the following properties: carminative, stomachic, antiemetic, antinauseant, febrifuge, vermifuge, emmenagogue, and tonic. They are used as an aid in treating diseases of the arteries, for lung problems, and as a general stimulant and excitant of the digestive functions.

Paste made from cloves is mixed with rock sugar syrup and licked to cure morning sickness. Cloves are crushed together with hsay-kha gyi (Andrographis paniculata) and taken with hot water to treat fevers and fatigue; a mixture of crushed cloves together with honey is used as eyedrops for sore eyes and cataracts; they can be crushed with water, warmed and taken for nausea, dry mouth, and loss of taste. Cloves taken together with sour pomegranate juice are used to treat vomiting during an epileptic fit as well as ordinary vomiting. An ointment for sores, such as boils, pimples, or rashes that neither erupt nor subside, is made by mixing cloves with equal amounts of turmeric powder and crushing them together. They are roasted, crushed and mixed with honey and licked to treat whooping cough. Clove oil, or a paste, is used for toothaches. The oil mixed with mustard oil is used as a rub for aching joints and can also be rubbed onto the forehead for headaches.

Notes

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (= Eugenia jambolana Lam.)

Names

Myanmar: tame, thabye-kyet-chi, thabye-phyu, wa-passan. English: black plum, jambolan plum, jambu, Java plum.

Range

India and Sri Lanka, east to Malay Archipelago. Cultivated in tropical regions. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, and Yangon.

Uses

Bark: Astringent and sweet with binding properties, easily digestible. Used in the compounding of medicines to treat conditions with white vaginal discharge or discharge due to venereal disease. A paste of the bark made with milk is mixed with some honey and a tablespoon is taken to cure severe diarrhea. Bark, Leaf, Fruit and/or Seed: Used to treat diarrhea and dysentery. Bark and Seed: Used in treating diabetes. Shoot: Has cooling, drying, and binding properties; used for indigestion and bloating. Leaf: A decoction is used for sore eyes. Fresh tender leaves are crushed with water and held in the mouth to cure gum boils and other mouth sores; crushed and taken with milk to treat bleeding hemorrhoids; and crushed with water and taken to neutralize the effects of opium. Juice from the leaves is applied to scorpion stings. Fruit: Sweet and astringent, it diminishes indigestion. Juice of crushed fruit can be taken, once in the morning and once at night, for inflammation of the spleen. Juice of ripe fruit is squeezed, strained, and fermented, then taken as a treatment for gas. Eating the ripe fruit is used as a treatment for diabetes. Seed: Made into a powder and taken with cooled boiled water to treat (mild) diabetes mellitus; paste made from the dried seeds applied 2–3 times a day to sores associated with venereal disease; and paste, also made with water, applied to sores that are difficult to heal. Together with mango seeds and krazu (Terminalia citrina) seeds can be mixed in equal amounts, roasted and made into a powder taken to cure diarrhea.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in India, Myanmar, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines.

Reported constituents include gallic acid, tannin, volatile oil, fat, antimellin, jambuol, olein, linolein, palmitin, sterarin, phytosterin, myricyl alcohol, and hentriacontane (Perry 1980). It is thought that ellagic and gallic acid, and tannin “may be responsible for the medicinal value of the seeds”; also, the leaves have been found to have a slightly antibiotic action against Staphylococcus (Perry 1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston (= Eugenia jambos L.)

Names

Myanmar: hnin-thi-pin, thabyu-thabye, thabyu-thaby, wa-pasang (Kachin), tame (Kayin), sot-crin (Chin), mak-spye (Shan). English: rose apple.

Range

Indo-Malaysian region. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark and Seed: Used in treating diabetes. Leaf: A decoction is used to treat sore eyes.

Note

In India the bark is employed for rheumatism and pneumonia; the leaf as a decoction for eye sores; the fruit for liver problems (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Syzygium nervosum A.Cunn. ex DC. (= Eugenia operculata Roxb.; Cleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & L.M. Perry)

Names

Myanmar: kon-thabye, thabye-shin, ye-thabye. English: rai jamun (Hindi).

Range

From China south throughout Southeast Asia, and northern Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Rakhine, and Shan.

Uses

Leaf: Used in fomentation. Fruit: Used to treat rheumatism. Root: Used in an embrocation.

Notes

In India the bark is used for rheumatism and pneumonia; the leaf for rheumatism and dry fomentation; the fruit for rheumatism; and the root boiled and rubbed on joints (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Perry (1980) discusses the uses of this species in China and Indo-China.

Chemical constituents of the plant include aromatic volatile oil, a little tannin, traces of methylchavicol, and alkaloid similar to caffeine (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Nyctaginaceae (Bougainvillea family)

1. Boerhavia L

Boerhavia diffusa L.

Names

Myanmar: pa-yan-na-war. English: spreading hogweed.

Range

Pantropical. In Myanmar grows naturally on plains throughout the country.

Uses

Whole plant: Take with liquid from the leaves of kyeik-hman (Eclipta prostrata) to cure female-related disorders. Mix with the seeds of dant-kywei (Senna tora) and either eaten or used as an ointment to cure ringworm. Leaf: When mixed with milk, it will cure pain in passing urine, gonorrhea, asthma and fevers, give longevity, and keep a person strong and looking youthful. Eaten and cooked with nga-gyin fish (Cirrhinus mrigala) to cure partial paralysis. New mothers having difficulty in lactating will produce milk quickly by drinking soup to which the leaves have been added; sore and aching breasts and general weakness and fatigue will also be cured. Cooked or made into a soup mixed with nga-panaw fish (Channa punctata) to cure heart disease, pleurisy, typhoid, bloating, dropsy, hemorrhoids, flatulence, phlegm, and indigestion. Pounded and used as a poultice for external inflammations. Root: Eating powdered root with sugar will cure coughing and whooping cough; mixed with honey will cure asthma.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The whole plant us used as a laxative and diuretic; the leaf as an appetizer, alexiteric, and to control bleeding after childbirth; and the seed as a tonic, carminative and for lumbago, scabies, purifying the blood, and hastening delivery. The root is employed as a diuretic, laxative, expectorant, stomachic; for asthma, edema, anemia, jaundice, internal inflammation, anasarca, as an antidote to snake venom, for dropsy, gonorrhea, ulcers, guineaworm, abdominal tumors, and cancer; also in many herbal preparations for fever (decoction), and an antispasmodic for heart and kidney ailments. Medicinal uses of this species in Dominica are described in DeFilipps (1998).

Perry (1980) discusses the uses of the species in Indo-China, India, and Indonesia.

The plant contains an active alkaloid, punarnavine, and it is believed that a high content of potassium salts enhances the powerful diuretic action of the alkaloid (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

2. Bougainvillea Comm. ex Juss

Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China, Indo-China, and the Malay Peninsula.

The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment, and beneficial uses of this plant are discussed by Nellis (1997). The roots contain an alkaloid, and the roots and seeds are poisonous (Perry (1980).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Nymphaeaceae (Water-lily family)

1. Nymphaea L

Uses

Whole plant: The bark, five parts, flowers, and leaves are used in preparations that stimulate weight gain, promote fetal growth, inhibit hemorrhoid formation, alleviate female disorders, prevent hair loss, and reduce fevers. The boiled five parts are used for spleen problems. Bark: In particular, used in medicines to treat eye problems, bronchitis, fever, and skin disorders. Flower: Boiled and taken together with the liquid from boiling to alleviate joint inflammation. Leaf: Juice from the crushed leaves- taken with honey or sugar for gall bladder problems and chronic fevers; with a bit of salt, used as a de-worming medicine; with a bit of fresh ginger, taken as a malaria cure; ingested to neutralize venom from snakebite; also used to relieve diarrhea and loose bowels in infants. After cooling, water from briefly boiling the leaves is given to infants for fever and sickness. For muscle strain in the buttocks, leaves are simmered over low heat in water and ingested. A preparation of the leaves crushed together with black pepper is taken to relieve excessive menstruation. A reduction of the leaves boiled in water to half the starting volume is taken for excessive urination. Topically the crushed leaves- are applied to treat ringworm; together with milk, applied to relieve itching and rashes.

Notes

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal uses of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial used of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

While the oil of this species is not toxic in small amounts, a toxic substance has been isolated from it; two alkaloids, berberine and protopine, are present (Perry 1980). In India L-glutamic acid (6% of defatted meal of oilseed cake) is used in its free state in treating mental deficiencies in infants and adolescents (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Passifloraceae (Passion Flower family)

1. Passiflora L

Reported chemical constituents include fixed oil, lethicin, choline, phytin, globulin, sesamin, and the amino acid arginine (Perry 1980, Duke and Ayensu 1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Pentaphylacaceae (Pentaphylax family)

1. Anneslea Wall

Anneslea fragrans Wall.

Names

Myanmar: gangawlwe, mai-mupi, meiktun, ngal-hjyang, pan-ma, pon-nyet, taung-gnaw. Chinese: cha li shu.

Range

China, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Mandalay, and Shan.

Use

Flower: Used as blood purifier.

Note

In Indo-China the bark, mixed with other ingredients (from other plant species), is antidysenteric, also a vermifuge; the flowers are part of a complex preparation to treat fever (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Phyllanthaceae (Phyllanthus family)

1. Bischofia Blume

Bischofia javanica Blume

Notes

Reported chemical constituents include the cardiac glycosides, dioxin, gitoxin, and dilanane (Perry 1980). Dried leaves are a source of the drug digitalis. Two European species of Digitalis are cultivated in the Far East as a well known source of the heart tonic digitalin (Perry 1980). D. lanata is said to have greater strength that D. pupurea (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Digitalis purpurea L.

Names

Myanmar: tila-pup-hpi. English: apricot blush foxglove, common foxglove, digitalis, purple foxglove.

Range

A polymorphic species centered in the Mediterranean region. Naturalized elsewhere, including northern Africa; northern, middle, and southeastern Europe; also cultivated. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Leaf: Used as heart tonic.

Notes

Dried leaves are a principle source of the drug digitalis. In India the leaf of this species is used for heart and kidney disease; also applied locally on wounds and burns (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). Reported uses for the species include as a bactericide, cardiotonic, cardiostimulant, tonic, diuretic, sedative, stimulant; also for dropsy, edema, fever, insanity, neuralgia, palpitation, renitis, and tumor; also, a poison (Duke 2009).

Research has shown that chemicals found in this plant are effective as a bacteriocide and cardiotonic (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

2. Plantago L

Plantago major L.

Names

Myanmar: a-kyaw ta-htaung, bar-kyaw pin, hsay-kyaw gyi. English: broad-leaved plantain, cart-track-plant, common plantain, great plantain, plantain, ribwort, white man’s foot.

Range

Europe and Asia; considered a cosmopolitan weed. In Myanmar, grows naturally in cold places at high altitudes, such as Pyin-oo-lwin and surrounding areas.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and fruits are used. Whole plant: Consuming the five parts stewed in water regularly is considered a cure for diabetes; drinking the juice of the five parts every morning and evening is considered a cure for lung disease. The plant can be used either as an oral or external medicine to cure inflammation and aches in the joints, stomach pain, and general aches and pains. It is also widely used as a tonic for strength. Leaf and Root: A decoction of the leaves and the root is given for fever of long duration and intermittent fever. Leaf: The leaves have cooling properties that promote urination. Finely crushed leaves are used as a poultice on bee, wasp, and other stings to neutralize venom quickly, as well as to stop bleeding from cuts and other injuries. A decoction of the leaves is used as a wash to cleanse sores and stimulate new tissue formation. The leaf decoction is also used warm as a mouthwash and gargle for oral inflammation, swollen and infected gums, and gingivitis. For earaches and ear infections exuding pus, juice from the crushed leaves is used as eardrops applied 2–3 times daily. Juice from the crushed leaves is also given to cure malaria. Steam from cooked leaves is used for steam baths to remedy white vaginal discharge, gonorrhea in men and women, hemorrhoids, and bloating. Leaves roasted until limp are applied twice daily to draw out embedded thorns and to heal sores quickly. Ingesting the leaf decoction with sugar alleviates urinary problems, prickly heat, impetigo (caused by species of Staphylococcus and Streptococcus bacteria), erysipelas (caused by Streptococcus), intestinal disease/ inflammation.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of the species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history, and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition, and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

3. Scoparia L

Scoparia dulcis L.

Names

Myanmar: dar-na-thu-kha, dana-thuka, thagya-bin. English: licorice weed, sweet-scented broom.

Range

Pantropical to subtropical. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Uses

Whole plant: Used to treat toothaches; dried and used as a herbal tea to treat blood in urine; crushed and mixed with salt, and applied to sores to aid in healing. Drug prepared from this plant is used in the treatment of diabetes. Leaf: Used to treat fevers and nausea. Root: Used for excessive menstruation and gonorrhea, also to treat nausea and dizzy spells. Raw root crushed and pressed on tooth for toothaches.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). The chemistry, pharmacology, history, and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by Gupta (1995).

The following are given in the literature as medicinal uses for this species: Treatment of rashes, sores, wounds, bruises, eczema; earache, headache, toothache, sore throat, cough, bronchitis, fever; spasm; for tumor, albuminuria, amygdalosis, anemia, blennorrhagia, conjunctivitis, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, gonorrhea, gravel, grip, hyperglycemia, inflammation, jaundice, ketonuria, kidney problems, mange, marasmus, menorrhagia, metroxenia, nerves, ophthalmia, piles, retinitis, snakebite; for use as an antidote, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, emetic, purgative; also used as an insecticide (Duke 2009).

Research has shown chemicals found in this plant to be effective in the treatment of albuminuria, anemia, diabetes, hyperglycemia, and retinitis (Duke 2009).

References

Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan (1967), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Plumbaginaceae (Leadwort family)

1. Plumbago L

Leaf: When dried can be brewed with tea leaves and taken to stimulate appetite, promote virility, stop vomiting, remedy passing of blood, and relieve muscle aches, pains and stiffness. Root: Used as diuretic, for urine purification, gonorrhea, itchy skin, and menstrual flow stimulation; the root mass is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is ingested. Adding the powder of the tiger cowry (Cypraea tigris) to the liquid in which the root mass has been boiled and ingesting the mixture used to treat women for the red or white discharges of gonorrhea. Because this plant promotes urination, it is an ingredient in many diuretics. A mixture containing ten parts of the root mass, five parts tiger cowry, two parts rock salt, five parts hsin-hnamaung (Heliotropium indicum or Tournefortia roxburghii) and one part sting ray is made into balls the size of betel (Piper betle) nuts, and dried in the sun as a treatment for kidney stones, bladder or urination pain, blood in the urine, incomplete urination in males, and dysentery in females. The mixture is taken once in the morning and once at night for symptom relief and to promote health.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). In Indo-China the rhizome serves as a lactifuge (Perry 1980).

A reported chemical constituent of the species is the alkaloid gramine (donaxine). Research has indicated that this alkaloid causes weak parasympathomimetic action (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

2. Bambusa Schreb

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss (= B. arundinacea Willd.)

Names

Myanmar: kyakat-wa, nga-chat-wa. English: giant thorny bamboo, spiny bamboo.

Range

India to China, south through Thailand and Indo-China; cultivated elsewhere. Reported from Myanmar.

Use

Shoot: Applied as poultice; also edible.

Notes

In China the species is used as a treatment for jaundice, indigestion, and water retention; also, “The sap of the stem or a decoction of the unfolding leaves is administered as a treatment for fevers and rheumatic affections” (Perry 1980). In Indo-China refreshing emollient leaves are used to treat fever, sore throat, and cough; finely chopped bark serves as an astringent for hemorrhage, menorrhea, nausea, and vomiting; roots and buds are emollient, diuretic, diaphoretic, and depurative, and are given for obstructions, and urinary and venereal problems; fresh roots, mixed with tobacco and Piper betle leaves and macerated in oil, serve as an unguent effective on hard tumors and cirrhosis; bark is bechic; and juice from young branches passed through fire are used to give relief for inflamed bronchial tubes (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

3. Coix L

Coix lacryma-jobi L.

Names

Myanmar: ka-leik, kalein, kalein-thi, kyeik. English: adlay, adlay millet, Job’s tears.

Range

Southeast Asia. In Myanmar found in Kachin and Yangon.

Uses

Seed: Used to reduce body weight and as a diuretic.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Perry (1980) covers the species’ uses in China, Japan, and India to the Philippines, and states that the kernels, separated from the shell, are used as a diuretic, stomachic, tonic; also to treat lung and chest complaints, rheumatism, dropsy, and gonorrhea.

The seeds contain coicin, glutamic acid, histidin, arginin, leucin, lycin, and tyrosin; the acetone extract of the seeds is said to show a growth-inhibiting activity, or an antitumor component, coixenolide (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

4. Cymbopogon Spreng

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.

Names

Myanmar: sapalin, hkum-bang-pan (Kachin), wine-baing (Mon). English: citronella grass, fever grass, lemon grass.

Range

Southern India and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in Myanmar; grows all over, up to 610 m altitude.

Uses

Bitter and astringent in taste, plant is used for heart and throat problems, flatulence and phlegm conditions, sicknesses that cause blood vomiting, cholera, coughs and fevers with chest congestion. It promotes healthy gall bladder function, circulation and digestion. Whole plant: Crushed and wrapped in a cloth, the plant is pressed over inflamed areas to ease pain. The oil is rubbed vigorously into joints to relieve inflammation. Where malaria is endemic, the oil is heated together with wax to make an ointment used topically as a mosquito repellent. Stem: Crushed stems mixed with peppercorns are formed into pellets that are ingested daily to cure fever and malaria. Also, the liquid from boiling a handful of stems (without the tips or roots) in water to one-third the starting volume is taken at least three times a day for 3 days to cure jaundice. The juice from lemon grass is also used to treat indigestion and promote appetite.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.

Names

English: iwarancusa grass, millet, oilgrass.

Range

Africa; Asia.

Uses

Oil: Considered a valuable liniment to treat rheumatism. Root: Thought to be of great value in curing a number of fevers, including malaria.

Notes

In India the leaf is used for cough, rheumatism, and cholera; also as a tonic for dyspepsia and to purify blood (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

The oil from the roots contains DL-piperitone and D-∆4-carene (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle

Uses

Root: Used as a diuretic and diaphoretic.

Notes

The many medicinal many uses of the species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985) as follows: The leaf is used for bronchitis, cholera; ash for foul sores The flower is decocted in water to treat cholera, fish and shrimp poisoning, ashes styptic. The stem shoot is antidotal, antiemetic, antipyretic, refrigerant, for cholera; ash is applied to foul sores. The root is decocted as an antiemetic, antipyretic, diuretic, febrifuge, sialogogue, stomachic for abscess, arthritis, cough, earache, fever, hematuria, hiccups, nausea, pulmonary abscess, sore throat, sunstroke, and toothache. They additionally note that the herb is said to be used in Chinese medicine for leukemia. Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in China and the Malay Peninsula.

Reported constituents include asparagine, proteins, and glycosides (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

7. Zea L

Zea mays L.

Names

Myanmar: pyaung-bu. English: corn, maize.

Range

New World, probably Mexico. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Flower: A fermented preparation from the style of the plant is said to have a strong hypoglycemic effect.

Notes

In India the grain is used in the diet of consumptive patients, for treating relaxed bowels, as an astringent, and as a resolvent (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China a decoction of the leaf and roots is used for dysuria. Corn silks are used as a diuretic in dropsy, to treat diabetes mellitus, and decocted with banana and watermelon peel for hypertension. A cob decoction is used for epistaxis and meorrhagia. The seed is widely used for cancers, tumors, and warts. A decoction of the root is used for blenorrhea and dyusuria (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

In Haiti an infusion of the styles is used as a diuretic and for kidney problems; a decoction or maceration of the styles is used for inflammations and edema; the ground grains are used in a warm compress on traumatized areas and swellings; a cataplasm of the ground grains is applied to fractures; and, split ears of corn are made into an infusion as an antihypertensive (Neptune-Rouzier 1997). Among Afro-Cuban religions, in the Ocha Rule (also called Santeria), this species is a sacred plant belonging to all the orishas (“saints”); “It is considered a sign of good luck when maize grains spontaneously sprout around a house” (Fuentes 1992). The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000).

Reference

Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan (1967).

Polygonaceae (Buckwheat family)

1. Fagopyrum Mill

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench

Names

Myanmar: shari-mam. English: brank, buckwheat, common buckwheat, notch-seeded buckwheat.

Range

Central or northern Asia. Widely grown as cultigen in cool temperate regions, and easily escaping.

Uses

Fruit: Used to treat colic and diarrhea.

Note

Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

2. Persicaria Mill

Persicaria chinensis (L.) H.Gross (= Polygonum chinense L.)

Myanmar: khan tauk. English: goldthread, Indian goldthread.

Range

Temperate Asia. Grows naturally in northeastern Myanmar at altitudes exceeding 2440 m.

Conservation status

Endangered [EN A2cd] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

The plant’s bitter taste creates a heating sensation in the stomach. Bark and Root: Used in preparations to relieve constipation, regulate bowel movements, promote digestion, reduce fever, treat malaria, and increase vitality. Root: Crushed, ground together with pepper, and formed into pea-sized pellets; one pellet is taken each morning and evening to alleviate excessive phlegm, asthma, bronchitis, and coughs. A mixture of the crushed roots, ground pepper, and juice from bauk hkway (Abutilon indica) leaves is shaped into pellets the size of peppercorns; two of these pellets are swallowed twice daily to reduce edema, promote digestion, and alleviate diarrhea and other intestinal problems. The roots soaked in country liquor are taken for malaria. A thick paste formed from ground roots is used to draw circles around the eyes to remedy sore eyes and other eye problems. A mixture of the roots, crushed together with a bit of sap from Aloe vera leaves or sap from mayoe (Calotropis procera), is applied topically to snakebites, followed by ingestion of a second mixture, made from crushed roots combined with pepper and a bit of the tuberous roots from ma aye chintaung (a grass species with a triangular stem), to neutralize the venom. The root, one clove, and one peppercorn are ground into a paste using mother’s milk and given to children for pneumonia. Equal amounts of the root bark, the bark from shwe tataing (the scientific name of this plant could not be ascertained per Thi Thi Ta, personal communication), and the bark from bauk hkway (A. indica) are powdered and inhaled to alleviate asthma, bronchitis, and coughs.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

3. Nigella L

Nigella sativa L.

Names

Myanmar: samon-net. English: black cumin, nutmeg flower, Roman coriander, small fennel.

Range

Eastern Mediterranean to northeastern India; also cultivated. In Myanmar found in Kachin and Sagaing.

Uses

Seed: Used as a carminative and galactagogue; also mixed with other drugs, since warm and stimulating.

Notes

On the Malay Peninsula the seeds are a component of poultices for abscesses, rheumatism, orchitis, ulcerated nose, headache; part of a lotion to wash fever patients and a gargle; and taken internally in combination with other drugs as an antiemetic and laxative (Perry 1980). Additionally, “They are in prescriptions in the Medical Book of Malayan Medicine for debility, blood poisoning, enlarged liver, nausea, colic, constipation, for women after childbirth, and various other troubles.” In Indonesia, they are added to astringent medicines for abdominal disease (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Rhamnaceae (Buckthorn family)

1. Gouania Jacq

Gouania leptostachya DC.

Names

Myanmar: pi-khum, tayaw-nyo-nye. English: liane savon.

Range

China, Bhutan, India, Laos, Malaysia, Mayanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Use

Leaf: Ingredients in poultices for treating sores.

Notes

In Indonesia bark with water serves as a wash for the hair and kills vermin in it; pulped root, stem and leaves are applied to treat certain skin complaints (Perry 1980).

The bark and leaves of this species contain a small amount of alkaloid which has been found to have a tetanizing effect on toads (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

2. Ventilago Gaertn

Ventilago denticulata Willd. (= V. calyculata Tul.)

Names

Myanmar: tayaw-nyo. Chinese: mao guo yi he guo.

Range

China, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Root: A paste made with the root is applied to promote granulation of wounds.

Notes

Seeds of this species were analyzed and found to contain protein, reducing sugars (as glucose), 40% fixed oil (oleic acid a major constituent; others included palmitic, linolenic, linoleic, lauric, stearic, and small amounts of caprylic acids), sterols, glycosides, and free acids. The unsaponfiable matter contained B-amyrin and lupeol as well as traces of two unidentified hydrocarbons (Grover and Rao 1981).

Reference

Perry (1980).

3. Ziziphus Mill

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (= Z. vulgaris Lam.)

Names

Myanmar: eng-si, jujube, mahkaw, makhkaw-hku, zi, zi-daw-thi. English: Chinese date, Chinese jujube, common jujube.

Range

Native to temperate East Asia, also warmer climates including Indo-China (Cambodia). Cultivated in Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Bark: Used as a remedy for diarrhea. Leaf: Used for scorpion stings. Leaf, Fruit: Used as a laxative and blood purifier. Fruit: Considered to be pectoral. Root: Used for fever.

Notes

Perry (1980) discusses the medicinal uses of the species in two Asian countries as follows; In Korea the stone seeds are used for hypnotics and narcotics. In China the fruits or kernel of the seeds are considered the most important part of the plant in medicine, although other parts are used as well; the fruit of the wild variety (var. spinosa) is an astringent, that of the cultivar (var. inermis) less so, but both serve the same purpose; the drug also acts as adjuvant with other drugs which are combined in medicines. The fruit is used in brewing medicines to make them less poisonous, also to modify flavor and lessen the effect of stimulants. It is also said to have nervine, tonic, roborant, stomachic, sedative, laxative, bechic, antipyretic, and diuretic properties; it relieves insomnia, night sweats, and neurasthenia, promotes hair growth, and serves as a collyrium. A decoction of the woody root is take to relieve sensation of fullness in the stomach and to aid digestion; cooked with pork, the broth is drunk as a galactagogue and used to cure hemoptysis.

The seeds of this species contain no alkaloid; the oil contains oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, and phytosterol (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Ziziphus rugosa Lam.

Names

Myanmar: mak-kok, myauk-zi, sammankaw, taw-zi, zi-ganauk, zi-talaing. English: wild jujube.

Range

Pakistan, China, Myanmar, India, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widespread in Myanmar.

Use

Flower: Used to treat menorrhagia.

Note

In India the bark is used for diarrhea, bleeding gums, sores in the mouth and on the tongue, venereal sores, and carbuncles; the flower is employed for menorrhagia (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Rhizophoraceae (Red Mangrove family)

1. Carallia Roxb

Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr.

Names

Myanmar: maniawga, hpun, yat.English: carallia, freshwater mangrove.

Range

China, South Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; northern Australia, Madagascar, East Nepal, New Guinea, and Pacific islands. In Myanmar, found growing naturally all over the country, especially near rivers and streams.

Uses

Bark: Used in medications given orally to clear eye infections; and in the prevention of pox and other infections. It is also used in thwayhsay (blood fortifying preparations) and fever-reducing remedies. Made into a paste, the bark is applied topically to relieve itching. Fruit: Used to treat infected wounds.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Perry (1980) lists the medicinal uses for this species in Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula.

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

2. Rhizophora L

Rhizophora mucronata Lam.

Names

Myanmar: baing-daung, byu-chidauk, payon-ama, pyu.English: mangrove.

Range

Along coasts of the Old World tropics. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady and Taninthayi.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Use

Bark: Used to treat hematuria.

Notes

In China and Japan a decoction of the bark is antidiarrheic; in Indo-China the root is antihemorrhagic, as is the bark (the latter is also a treatment for angina); on the Malay Peninsula a decoction of old leaves is given at childbirth, also of bark, at the same time giving a little of the decoction of the root to the child (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Rosaceae (Rose family)

1. Agrimonia L

Agrimonia eupatoria L.

Names

English: agrimony, cocklebur, harvest-lice.

Range

Mostly North Temperate Zone. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay.

Uses

Plant (part unspecified in Nordal 1963) used as diuretic and astringent.

Note

In India the leaf is used as an anthelmintic; the root as a diuretic, tonic, and astringent (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

2. Prunus L

Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don (= P. puddum Roxb. ex Brandis; Cerasus cerasoides (D.Don) S.Ya.Sokolov)

Name

English: Himalayan wild cherry.

Range

Himalayas, China. Reported from Myanmar.

Conservation status

Least Concern [LC] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Seed: kernel used as remedy for stone and gravel.

Note

In India the bark is used for venereal diseases, fever, and diarrhea; the seed yields an oil used for stones and gravel (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Rubiaceae (Coffee family)

1. Catunaregam Wolf

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. (= Randia spinosa (Thunb.) Poir.)

Names

Myanmar: tha-min-sa-hpru-thi. English: common emetic nut, emetic nut.

Range

Found from India to South China, south into southeastern Asia.

Uses

Fruit: Used as an emetic. Bark: Used to treat fever.

Notes

In China the root and fruit are considered emetic; on the Malay Peninsula the pericarps are used in a wash, the leaves pounded with sugar or molasses are used as an effective application for swellings, the inside of the fruit is rubbed on exposed parts of the body to ward off leeches, and the drug is put into a hot bath to treat mosquito and other bites; and in Indo-China a tea-like infusion of the bark is used to regulate menses, and water in which fruits are crushed is used to get eliminate leeches or worms if spread on the soil (Perry 1980).

Experiments have shown that the alcoholic extract contains unidentified water-soluble fatty acids, essential oil, green coloring matter, an acid saponin, and an acid resin; also, that the pharmacologically active constituent is a neutral saponin (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

2. Coffea L

Coffea arabica L.

Notes

In Indo-China the bark is used as tonic; also, the species apparently has two varieties- var. subglabrum Pierre, of which the pulverized wood is found in native pharmacies as a remedy for skin diseases, and var. velutinum Pierre, which is especially used as a women’s remedy (Perry 1980). In the Philippines the species is a substitute for Cinchona due to its antiperiodic effects, also the leaves are applied as a poultice for headache (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents include a catechol tannin containing phloraglucin, some phlobaphenes, traces of catechol tannin without phloroglucin (analogous to quinatannic acid) not combined with alkaloid, oxycoumarin, B-mannose, methyl sugar, and heteroside of which some elements could not be isolated (Perry 1980).

References

Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

5. Ixora L

Ixora chinensis Lam.

Names

Myanmar: pon-na-yeik. English: Chinese ixora.

Range

Malay Peninsula and China. In Myanmar found in Yangon.

Uses

Flower: Used to treat tuberculosis and hemorrhage.

Notes

In China the plant is used as an anodyne and resolvent; for abscesses, bruises, extravasated blood, rheumatism, wounds; also considered beneficial to bone marrow and the uterus of pregnant women (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Ixora coccinea L.

Names

Myanmar: pan-thawka, pan-zayeik, pon-na-yeik. English: flame-of-the-woods, jungle flame ixora, jungle geranium, scarlet ixora.

Range

South India. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Root: Used as an appetizer and stomachic.

Note

In India the root is used as a stomachic, for acute dysentery, loss of appetite, chronic ulcers, and applied on sores; the flower is used for dysentery, catarrhal bronchitis, and leucorrhea (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

6. Mitragyna Korth

Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil.

Names

Myanmar: bein-sa. English: kratom.

Range

Native to Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin and Taninthayi.

Use

Leaf: used to induce stupor.

Notes

In Thailand chewed leaves are reputed to act as a stimulant to help person endure fatigue and long-lasting periods without food. It is also used as an opium substitute, “but is habit-forming” (Perry 1980). On the Malay Peninsula, in addition to chewing the leaves or drinking an infusion, the residue is dehydrated and smoked; all have the same effect (Perry 1980). The leaves, heated with those of Morinda citrifolia, Blumea balsamifera, and Oroxylum indicum, are applied hot to an enlarged spleen; pounded leaves are used as a poultice for wounds or to expel worms from children (Perry 1980).

Reported chemical constituents include mitragynine and mitraphylline; the former is said to be a local anesthetic (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

7. Morinda L

Morinda angustifolia Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: nlung, latloot, hla ponyork. English: morinda.

Range

China, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. In Myanmar, found growing naturally all over the country but especially in Upper and Lower Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Eating boiled leaves with a dip can help eliminate gas and cure stomachaches, burning sensation in the mouth, irregularity in bile, and high blood pressure. Eating the leaves boiled together with the nga-mway-toh (Mastacembelus armatus) fish will cure diarrhea. New mothers eating the leaves in a salad will be cured of blocked mammary glands, drying up of breast milk, aches and pains in the pelvic area, twisting pain in the abdomen, and nosebleeds. Eating the leaves in a soup with the leaves of dant-dalun (Moringa oleifera) will cure heart disease, hemorrhaging of blood, and diabetes. Fruit: Beaten and taken with honey will cure coughs and asthma. Eaten with jaggery will cure indigestion. Boiled young fruit and eaten in a salad will cure shooting or dull pains in the stomach due to gas, and hypertension.

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Morinda citrifolia L.

Names

Myanmar: nibase, noni, nyagyi. English: Indian mulberry.

Range

East Indies and Australia. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf and Fruit: Used to alleviate arthritis, as an emmenagogue, and to promote menstrual flow.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are discussed by Dagar and Singh (1999).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents, and pharmacological activity of this species are discussed by Ross (2001).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. (= M. tinctoria Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: nee-par hsay-pin.

Range

From India and Sri Lana to Malay Archipelago. In Myanmar, grows naturally in the hot zone and at the base of the Bago Yoma Hills.

Uses

Leaf: Crushed and used as a poultice over sores; if the sore is newly formed, the inflammation will go down and if it is mature, it will come to a head, expel the pus and be cured. Boiled and taken to cure fever. The liquid from boiled leaves is mixed with mustard seeds and given to children suffering from dysentery. The leaves or the bark can be crushed and the resulting liquid applied to cure stiff and knotted muscles, swelling in the joints and in other painful areas. Fruit: Roasted, crushed with a moderate amount of salt, and used as a toothpaste, it will firm up gums and teeth. Pressing dried fruit powder to sores to stop bleeding. Root: Used in making laxatives.

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

8. Mussaenda L

Mussaenda macrophylla Wall.

Range

India, southern China, Malay Archipelago, northern Australia. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay and Yangon.

Uses

Leaf: Used in a fomentation. Root: Used as a laxative and to treat dropsy, as an aperient.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). In Indo-China a decoction of wood chips is used to treat rheumatism, and also applied on an abscess; on the Malay Peninsula crushed leaves are made into a poultice for boils, and crushed roots for itch; the leaves also serve as a lotion for ulcerated nose (a little may be drunk) (Perry 1980). In the Philippines the bark, powdered or in a decoction, is given to correct visceral obstructions especially of children, and the decocted leaves are used externally to relieve the pain of hemorrhoids (Perry 1980).

Reported constituents of the stem include an alkaloid, essential oil, resin, tannin, pectic principle; those of the roots are resin, starch, organic acid, and a bitter glycoside resembling salicin (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

14. Rubia L

Rubia cordifolia L.

Names

English: Indian madder, munjeet.

Range

Southern Europe to Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Magway, Mandalay, and Shan.

Use

Root: Used as tonic.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are listed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The leaf and stem are used in a decoction as a vermifuge; the leaf is used on ulcers; the root as an astringent, for urinary trouble, for inflammation, and for sting of poisonous insects; the root and rootstock are employed as a tonic, antidysenteric, antiseptic, and deobstruent. Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). Here the root is used an anodyne, diuretic, emrhea; for arthritis, dysmenorrhea, edema, epistaxis, fractures, hematuria, rhea, hemoptysis, hemorrhoids, hemorrhage, jaundice, menorrhagia, rheumatism, and traumatic injuries; also a diuretic for bladder and kidney ailments and stones.

Duke and Ayensu (1985) also extensively discuss the chemical composition of this species. They note that the root is bacteriostatic against Staphylococcus aureus.

Reference

Nordal (1963).

15. Spermacoce L

Spermacoce hispida L. (= Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum.)

Names

Myanmar: gangala. English: landrina, shaggy button weed.

Range

China, Hong Kong, Taiwan; Japan- Ryukyu Islands; India; Indochina, Myanmar, Thailand; Malesia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Magway, and Yangon.

Use

Root: Alterative (restores to normal health).

Note

Reported medicinal uses for this species include for earache, eye problems, blindness, ophthalmia, fever, inflammation, dysentery, splenitis, otisis, pimpes, sores, stings, and gingivitis (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

16. Tamilnadia Tirveng. & Sastre

Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirveng. & Sastre (= Randia uliginosa (Retz.) Poir.)

Names

Myanmar: hman-phyu. English: tamilnadia.

Range

Himalayas (Garhwal to Sikkim), India, Myanmar, and Indo-China. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, and Yangon.

Use

Fruit and Root: Used as a medication for dysentery.

Note

The following medicinal uses have been given for this species: Astringent, deobstruent, diuretic, piscicide, tonic, and refrigerant; also used for eye problems, boils, otitis, inflammation, biliousness, colic, intestine, diarrhea, and dysentery (Duke 2009).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Rutaceae (Citrus family)

1. Aegle Corrêa

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa

Uses

Plant considered a good remedy for stomach trouble. Leaf: Bitter and astringent, promotes good digestion. Used to treat diseases caused by “abnormal blood”. A drink of milk in which the leaves were stewed used to neutralize poisons. Leaves also used in making up carminatives and to control leprosy. Root: Used as an antispasmodic.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985). In India the stem is used as diuretic and for digestion (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Taiwan a decoction of the root is sudorific and the leaves are insecticidal (Perry 1980). In Indo-China the plant is used as a tonic, astringent, and emmenagogue; a poultice of the leaves is applied to treat paralysis; and an infusion of the stem (roots, or the flowers and leaves) is taken for colic (Perry 1980). On the Malay Peninsula the pounded root is used as a poultice for sores; the leaves are employed for headache and ulcerated nose (for the latter, fumigation from burning leaves and bark is another treatment), and a decoction of the leaves is administered post partum; in Indonesia the juice, pressed or pounded out of the leaves, is used both as a medication for fever and a vermifuge, and may be given to “lying-in” women (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980), Forest Department (1999).

4. Limonia L

Limonia acidissima L.

Names

Myanmar: kwet, mak-pyen-sum, thi, san-phak (Kachin), sanut-khar (Mon), sansph-ka, thanakha, thi-ha-yaza. English: Chinese box tree, elephant apple, wood apple.

Range

Widely distributed on all continents. In Myanmar, grows naturally in hot zone, in townships such as Pakokku, Myin-kyan, Pyay, Shwe-bo, Sagaing, Myaing, Nwa-hto-gyi, and Taungthar. Can also be found in some of the semi-desert dry and scrubby areas of Upper Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: Used as a medication for biliousness. Leaf: Considered to be carminative. Used in treating epilepsy. Patients bathed in water the leaves have been boiled in and this is followed up by inducing a sweat. Leaves dried and made into a powder used to cure edema, sores and other diseases. Fruit: Considered to be stomachic. Used in making medicine for neutralizing poisons, strength-giving tonics, and high fevers. Root: Used in laxatives and medicines to induce sweating. Used as a purgative. Paste made of root, along with tumeric, used to treat female related disorders. Paste with salt used for tired sore muscles. Paste, together with water in which betle (Piper betle) leaves have been soaked, given to children with bronchitis. Licking 3 ticals (c. 30 g) of root powder mixed with sugar and honey used to neutralize toxins in the stomach. Taking 5 pei (1/16^th tical) each of the root and pan-nu (Hemistrepta lyratat or Saussurea affinis) used to neutralize the venom of snakebites. Fruit: Tonic.

Notes

In Indo-China the ripe fruit is cooling, astringent, tonic, “very efficacious” to treat salivation and ulcers in the mouth; a decoction of the aromatic leaves is taken as stomachic and carminative; the bark, chewed with that of Barringtonia acutangula, is applied to bites and stings, and also used to treat nausea; an infusion of the thorns with other ingredients is ingested as hemostatic to treat metrorrhagia (Perry 1980).

Marmosin has been isolated from the bark, feronialactones from the bark and roots, bergapten from the leaves, and stigmasterol from the leaves and unripe fruits (Perry 1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

5. Zanthoxylum L

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.

Names

Myanmar: chy-inbawngla, jangbawngla, jingbawngla, lan-salat, tabu. English: Japanese pepper.

Range

China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, kachin, Magway, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.

Uses

Seed: Used as febrifuge and sudorific.

Notes

In China the fruit is used for dysentery and stomachache; the seed as a sudorific, febrifuge, and for tooth powder. Medicinal uses if this species in China are discussed in (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Salicaceae (Willow family)

1. Flacourtia Comm. ex L’Her

Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Rausch. (= F. cataphracta Roxb. ex Willd.)

Names

Myanmar: kyetyo-po, mak-kyen, naywe. English: puneala plum.

Range

Old World tropics. Sub-himalayan foot hill zone in India extending to southeastern Asia, China. “… not known in the wild state, but is cultivated around villages in tropical countries of SE Asia (occasional in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Luzon)” (Perry 1980). In Myanmar found in Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Uses

Leaf: Used for stomatitis, diaphoretic; Fruit: Used for nausea and biliousness.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991) as follows: The bark is used as a prenatal and postnatal treatment for women to purify the blood (with roots of two other plants); the fruit is used for biliousness and liver complaints. Perry (1980) discusses the uses of this species in Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula.

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

2. Salix L

Notes

In India the whole plant is used for “puss formation”; from the leaf a poultice is made for neuralgia, and ash is placed on itching skin (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In Indo-China young children are bathed in a decoction of the plant to treat fevers (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Sapindaceae (Soapberry family)

1. Cardiospermum L

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

Use

Leaf: Used in fomentations.

Notes

In Taiwan and Palau the leave are used as a remedy for fever; in the Philippines a decoction of the bark serves as an astringent applied to treat eczema and simple ulcers, also used as a febrifuge (Perry 1980).

The leaves have been found to contain an alkaloid, glucoside, tannin, and resins (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

4. Litchi Sonn

Litchi chinensis Sonn.

Names

Myanmar: kyetmauk, tayok-zi, wa-mayar.English: leechee, litchi, litchi nut, lychee.

Range

South China, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Philippines. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Fruit: Heart, brain, and liver tonic. Also used as antidote in opium poisoning.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). Litchi chinensis is reported to be used as a tonic, analgesic, anodyne, antitussive, and astringent; also for thirst, stomachache, adenopathy, anemia, angina, cancer, colic, diarrhea, eruptions, flux, gastralgia, gastritis, hernia, intestinal problems, neuralgia, orchitis, quinsy, smallpox, and tumor (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

5. Sapindus L

Sapindus saponaria L. (= S. mukorossi Gaertn.)

Names

Myanmar: magyi-bauk. English: false dogwood, jaboncillo, soapberry, soapnut.

Range

Tropical America, North India. In Myanmar, found in Magway.

Uses

Fruit: Used as treatment for epilepsy. Fruit and Seed: Used to treat skin diseases.

Notes

In areas of the world where the plant is present, the fruit is used as soap (Perry 1980). In India the fruit is used an emetic and expectorant, for epilepsy, excessive salivation, and chlorosis; in China and Taiwan the flowers are a used for conjunctivitis and other eye diseases, a lotion made from the nuts is said to cause freckles and tan to disappear, the kernel is used to correct fetid breath and gum boils as well as to prevent tooth decay, a solution of macerated bark is used to wash the hairy parts of the body to kill lice and other vermin, and the seeds serve as a laxative and a decoction is taken as an expectorant (they are also used as a fish poison and insecticide) (Perry 1980). The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

A 22% physiologically active saponin has been extracted from the plant. The fruit is the soap nut, containing a toxic saponin (Perry 1980).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

6. Schleichera Willd

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr.

Names

Myanmar: gyo, mai-hkao, mai-kyang, thakabti, yun-ha. English: Ceylon oak, gum-lac, lac tree.

Range

Widespread from tropical and subtropical Asia to Australia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark: An astringent. Seed: Oil a hair growth promoter.

Notes

In Indo-China, used in a maceration or infusion, the bark is said to be anti-malarial; also used as a dressing for adenitis and immature boils, and made into a paste with rice water and powdered gypsum for spreading on lesions (Perry 1980). In Indonesia the bark is used as a for itch, wounds, and as a stimulating agent for cleansing the scalp and promoting hair growth (Perry 1980).

The seeds are more than half oil, in which a small part of prussic acid is found (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Sapotaceae (Sapodilla family)

1. Manilkara Adans

Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen (= Achras zapota L.)

Names

Myanmar: thagya. English: chewing gum tree, chicle tree, sapodilla.

Range

Central America. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Bark and Seed: Used as a diuretic, tonic, and antipyretic.

Notes

Juice of the leaves and young fruits of M. zapota contain a saponin which, when ingested, causes diarrhea and mild skin irritation (Lan et al. 1998).

Reference

Notes

In Indonesia the bark, wood, and seeds serve as a febrifuge and tonic, and a decoction is prescribed for bilious fever; the seed, chewed or ground with water, is both emetic and purgative, and oil from the seeds is a constituent in an embrocation for rheumatism; leaves are crushed and applied to erysipelas, also an infusion of the leaves is used to kill insects, especially white ants (Perry 1980). In the Philippines the bark and wood, macerated in water, alcohol, or wine are said to have tonic, stomachic, anticholeric, antifebrile, and emmenagogue properties; juice from the pounded bark serves as a remedy for skin diseases, and the bark, scraped or powdered, is given in water or oil to treat “malignant fever” (Perry 1980). In the Solomon Islands water from the macerated bark is drunk as a remedy for constipation; macerated leaves mixed with coconut oil are applied to the hair to kill lice; and an infusion of the seeds is utilized as a febrifuge (Perry 1980).

The bitter principle is samaderin (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Smilacaceae (Catbrier family)

1. Smilax L

Smilax aspera L.

Names

English: catbrier, greenbrier.

Range

Southern Europe to Asia in the Himalayas. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, and Shan.

Uses

Root: Used as an emetic and diaphoretic.

Note

In India the root is used on skin eruptions; also as a substitute for Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus sp.) (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Smilax glabra Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: katcho-gyi. English: glabrous greenbrier.

Range

Eastern Asia - China to the Himalayas. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Taninthayi.

Uses

Root: Used to treat venereal diseases.

Notes

In India fresh roots are decocted for sores and venereal diseases (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the aerial tuber, boiled in water, is used for abscesses, arthritis, boils, cystitis, diarrhea, dyspepsia, furuncles, lymphadenopathy, rheumatism, and syphilis; the rhizome is used to treat cancer, as well as for mercury poisoning, syphilis, and acute bacterial dysentery (Duke and Ayensu 1985). This species’ usage is sometimes confused with another species, Smilax china. In East and Souteast Asia the rhizome of S. glabra is used as an antidote for mercury poisoning; also to treat gout, scrofula, frambesia, and menorrhagia; a decoction is given as a parturifacient; additionally, the tubers are imported to the Malay Peninsula for treating venereal diseases (Perry 1980).

The plant is said to contain the antitumor hormones, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol, and the tubers are nearly 70% starch; also, alcohol extracts contain a glucoside (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Smilax guianensis Vitman (= S. macrophylla Willd.)

Names

Myanmar: katcho, ku-ku. English: wild sarsaparilla.

Range

Throughout India, Myanmar, Malaya, and Sri Lanka.

Uses

Root: Used as an emetic and diaphoretic; also to treat venereal disease.

Notes

In India and Nepal, the root is used as a substitute for sarsaparilla in the treatment of syphilis and gonorrhea. Also, a decoction of the root is given for swellings, abscesses, and boils (Nadkarni 1976).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Solanaceae (Nightshade family)

1. Brugmansia Pers

Brugmansia arborea (L.) Steud.

Name

Notes

Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition, and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986). Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal uses of Capsicum annuum in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). Indigenous medicinal uses of this species (as dual entries Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity, and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997).

The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species (as Capsicum frutescens) for a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by Neuwinger (1994). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant (as Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens) in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of “Cayenne pepper” are given in Fleming (2000).

As noted by Bertran (1997), in modern medicine, a purified extract of the common chili pepper is used in a cream. Its pain-relieving qualities are based on the active ingredient “capsaicin”, and capsaicin cream is used “as a substitute for the previously-required narcotic analgesics that were used to relieve the excruciating and often intractable pain of a condition that can follow shingles-postherpetic neuralgia. Capsaicin blocks pain signals that come from nerves just under the skin. Pain signals from tissues near the skin are greatly diminished or completely eliminated following continued application of capsaicin. No other compound is known to do this.”

Reference

Nordal (1963).

3. Datura L

Datura metel L. (= D. fastuosa L.)

Names

Myanmar: padaing, pa-daing-byu, pa-daing-khata, pa-daing-ni. English: devil’s trumpet, Hindu datura, horn of plenty, thorn apple.

Range

Native to the West Indies (Howard 1989), or to tropical Asia (Liogier 1994). Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used as a sedative and, when smoked, considered a valuable remedy for asthma. Seed: Mixed in curry and sweets, then employed as a narcotic (too high a dose may kill, the person may take some days to recover their faculties even at lower doses).

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in East and Southeast Asian countries are listed in Perry (1980). Medicinal uses of the species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Indigenous medicinal uses of the species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by Dagar and Singh (1999). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985).

The active principle is an alkaloid, hyoscine, found in both seeds and leaves; in too large quantities, it can cause delirium, coma, and death (Perry 1980). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by Kapoor (1990). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment, and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997). Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition, and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986).

References

Nordal (1963), Perry (1980).

Datura stramonium L.

Names

Myanmar: padaing-khat-ta, padaing-nyo. English: Jamestown weed, jimson weed, mad apple, moonflower, stinkwort, stramonium, thorn apple.

Range

Native of Mexico; now pantropical. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Leaf: Used as a sedative and antiasthmatic. Liquid from crushed leaves taken with skimmed milk will cure gonorrhea. Crushed leaves mixed with turmeric powder can be used as a poultice to cure breast inflammation or boils in the breasts of women. Sun-dried leaves are incorporated into a smoking cheroot to treat asthma. Roasted and applied to cure inflammation of the joints and aching of bones. Seed: Used in the treatment of gonorrhea and dyspepsia. Crushed, ground, and pressed onto the gum to cure toothaches. Seed powder is soaked in sesamum oil for seven days; oil is applied and covered with a thin bandage to cure headaches, aching eyes, backache, leg and foot problems; oil is brushed onto the suprapubic region for menstrual cramps and aches. Root: To cure a patient with rabies, a root paste is given orally followed by eating dried roasted beef. Seed and Root: Used as a tonic to increase virility.

Notes

Datura has been prescribed as a homeopathic remedy for nymphomania; it was utilized by Native American Algonquins of the eastern United States to induce long-term amnesia in coming-of-age ceremonies; and,”atropine, one of the main alkaloids present in Datura, is absorbable through the skin, a property that is critical to the herb’s use by witches [in the Middle Ages], who made an ointment or salve with datura as its main ingredient and then applied it to their bodies [often to the sensitive vaginal membranes]” in order to produce sensations of flying and various hallucinations (Mann 1993). This plant contains scopolamine, a compound which is commercially extracted from Datura inoxia (see Note under that species) for use in the treatment of motion sickness (e.g., seasickness, airsickness, carsickness) to prevent vomiting and nausea (Davis 1983). The main alkaloid in this species is hyosciamine, the levo-form of atropine; it is a natural anticholinergic with sedative properties (Mors et al. 2000).

The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity, and dosages, are discussed by Germosén-Robineau (1997). A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in Iwu (1993). The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment, and beneficial uses of this plant, parts of which are poisonous, are discussed by Nellis (1997).

Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical constituents, and toxicity of this species are discussed by Duke (1986). A powder or tincture of this plant is used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease in Europe, and a preparation of the plant in alcohol is used in China and Korea as an anesthetic (Neptune-Rouzier 1997). Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in Fleming (2000). Toxicity of this species is discussed by Bruneton (1999).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

4. Nicandra Adans

Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

References

Nordal (1963), Agricultural Corporation (1980), Forest Department (1999).

Solanum melongena L.

Names

Myanmar: kayan, sin-kayan. English: eggplant.

Range

Africa and Asia. Widely cultivated in many countries.

Uses

Leaf: Employed as a narcotic and as a stimulant.

Notes

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Solanum rudepannum Dunal (= S. torvum Sw.)

Names

Myanmar: kazaw-kha, kayan-kazaw. English: wild eggplant.

Range

New World tropics.

Use

Fruit: Used to treat diabetes.

Notes

Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991).

The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species as a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by Neuwinger (1994).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Symplocaceae (Sweetleaf family)

1. Symplocos Jacq

Symplocos racemosa Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: dauk-yut, mwet-kang, nle-prangkau, pya. English: sweetleaf.

Range

China, India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Fruit and Bark: Used to treat opthalmia.

Notes

In India the bark is used for bronchitis, digestive and urinary disorders, menorrhagia, eye diseases, ulcers, bleeding gums, maturation of wounds, liver problems, elephantiasis, and fat in the urine (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

The bark contains starch, calcium oxalate, alumina, alkaloid, tannin; but no saponin, oil, or fat (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Theaceae (Tea family)

1. Schima Reinw. ex Blume

Schima wallichii Choisy

Names

Myanmar: laukya, laukya-byu, mai-song, masa, meiksong, pan-ma, thitya-byu, thityah, thitya-ni. English: Chinese guger tree, needle wood, schima.

Range

India, east to Indonesia and Taiwan. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Mandalay, Rakhine, Sagaing, Shan, and Taninthayi.

Use

Bark: Anthelmintic.

Note

In India the bark is an anthelmintic and rubefacient, irritating to the skin (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Thymelaeaceae (Bitter Mahoe family)

1. Aquilaria Lam

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. (= A. agallocha Roxb.)

Names

Myanmar: akyaw, klaw (Kayin), thit-hmwe. English: agarwood, aloewood, eaglewood.

Range

Southeast Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. In Myanmar, grows naturally along the Tanintharyi Yomas, and on islands in Beik district; found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Mon, and Sagaing.

Conservation status

Vulnerable [VU A1cd] (IUCN 2017).

Uses

Preparations made from parts of this tree are used to control coughs and leprosy, stimulate weight gain, alleviate indigestion, treat eye and ear ailments, promote urinary flow, resolve liver and intestinal problems, and eliminate bad breath. Sap: Applied topically to make the body feel light and agile. Wood: Grated and used in various preparations, both external and internal, especially for illness during and after childbirth, but also to treat rheumatism, smallpox, abdominal illnesses, and other body pains; additionally, used as a cosmetic. The scented wood is employed as a stimulant, tonic, and carminative. It is also a constituent of medicine for heart palpitation, and other illnesses.

Inner wood is made into a paste which is inhaled, or burned to produce fumes for inhaling as a remedy for excessive dizziness; applied topically or ingested to cure vomiting, stop bleeding, and alleviate swollen joints; and applied at frequent intervals as a remedy for skin disorders and conditions arising from lack of hygiene. The paste, mixed with the root bark from kyet-hsu (Ricinus communis), is applied topically to alleviate stomachaches; ingested to treat asthma and vomiting; made from the wood of the black akyaw variety, is mixed with oil and applied topically to cure shooting stomach pains. The wood powder- mixed with honey, and ingested by licking, is considered a cure for heart disease and long-lasting fevers; rolled in thanat-pet (Cordia dichotama) leaves and smoked like a cigarette or in a pipe, is used to strengthen the heart and stomach. To stimulate proper healing, a mixture of the wood and sap from Oh-htane-pin (the scientific name of this plant could not be ascertained per Thi Thi Ta, personal communication) is placed on embers to produce smoke directed toward sores that have not healed, infected sores, and sores infested with maggots.

Notes

In India the wood is an aphrodisiac, carminative, stimulant, and tonic; also used for snakebite, and as an astringent for treating vomiting and diarrhea (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). In China the leaf is used for malaria; the stem bark is used as an astringent and antidysenteric; and the root is also astringent (Duke and Ayensu 1985).

In East and Southeast Asia medicinal uses of this species are given as follows: In Mongolia “Bezoar” from the bark is employed to “remove the poison” of feverish illnesses; in China it is used as an aphrodisiac, a diuretic, and for the purposes mentioned in the previous paragraph; in Indo-China the heartwood is thought to be antifebrile and antimalarial, also a decoction of it is given for paralysis, and alcohol from macerating it is used as a remedy for vomiting, cholera, cough, anuria, and indigestion; on the Malay Peninsula an infusion from the grated root is given to treat general dropsy or anasarca, finely ground leaves are rubbed over swollen hands and legs of a someone with dropsy, and resin from the wood is an ingredient in sedatives; and in Indonesia the leaves, mixed with vinegar, salt, and charcoal, are used to treat vomiting (Perry 1980).

From the grated wood of A. agallocha (i.e., A. malaccensis) comes a drug with great antiquity, referred to in the Scriptures and all works dealing with Eastern Materia Medica. This drug has several current uses, both external and internal. It is used in various preparations for illness during and after childbirth; to treat rheumatism, smallpox, abdominal ills, and other body pains. The the scented wood is also said to have the properties of a stimulant, tonic, and carminative; as well as being a constituent of medicines for the heart palpitation (Perry 1980).

References

Agricultural Corporation (1980), Perry (1980).

2. Linostoma Wall. ex Endl

Linostoma pauciflorum Griff.

Range

Asia. In Myanmar, found in Mon and Taninthayi.

Use

Plant said to be used medicinally, but specific use not given.

Notes

Another member of this genus, Linostoma decandrum, is used as a piscicide (Duke 2009). The genus, although used medicinally, is “chiefly poisonous” (Perry 1980).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Ulmaceae (Elm family)

1. Holoptelea Planch

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch.

Names

Myanmar: myauk-seik, pyauk-seik. English: Indian elm.

Range

India, Nepal, Sri Lanka; Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.

Use

Bark: Used to treat rheumatism.

Notes

The bark and leaves are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, anti-inflammatory, digestive, carminative, laxative, anthelmintic, depurative, and revulsive; considered useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, inflammations, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, diabetes, hemorrhoids, and rheumatism (Warrier et al. 1994).

An aqueous extract of leaves of this species has shown antimicrobial activity (Sharma et al. 2009).

Reference

Perry (1980).

Urticaceae (Nettle family)

1. Boehmeria Jacq

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.

Use

Root: Used as a diuretic.

Notes

In India the whole plant is used as an anthelmintic, a local irritant in paralysis, for nephritis, menorrhagia, jaundice, and a decoction is astringent: the leaf is used for wounds and boils, also locally for sprains and rheumatism; the leaf and root are used in an infusion for dandruff; the seed and root are used for diarrhea; and an unspecified plant part is used as a hemostatic for uterine hemorrhage and bleeding from the nose (Jain and DeFilipps 1991).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Names

English: Mousa nettle.

Range

Eastern Asia - Himalayas (Bhutan, North India, Kashmir, Nepal, Sikkim).

Use

Root: Oil from the root used as a stomachic.

Notes

In India the whole plant is used in a decoction for fevers (Jain and DeFilipps 1991). The species is said to be used as a tonic and suppository; for fever, gout, parturition, and rheumatism; and as a counterirritant, for dislocation, fracture, sprain, and swelling (Duke 2009).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Verbenaceae (Vervain family)

1. Lantana L

Lantana × aculeata L.

Names

Myanmar: seinnaban, nadaung-ban. English: lantana, wild sage.

Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem.

Names

Myanmar: kya-hpetgyi, mai-sung-hkong-long, mak-tasu-long. English: leea.

Curcuma comosa Roxb.

Names

Myanmar: nanwinga, sanwinga, sanwin-yaing. English: tumeric.

Range

Tropical Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.

Use

Stem: One tablespoon of the powdered dried rhizome mixed with honey is taken twice daily to lower blood pressure.

Notes

The rhizomes are used externally in indigenous medicine in Thailand, and as an anti-inflammatory agent. Also, in combination with Artemizia annua and Artistolochia tagala, they are used to reduce malaria fever and as an aromatic stomachic (Khine 2006).

Five diphenylheptenoids have been extracted and tested for their inhibition of nematode activity. On the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, it has been shown to be a most potent inhibitor of nematode motility. A phloracetophenone glucoside has also been isolated (Khine 2006).

References

Mya Bwin and Sein Gwan 1973, Forest Department (1999).

Curcuma longa L.

Names

Myanmar: nanwin, hsanwin, sa-nwin, namchying (Kachin), aihre (Chin), meet (Mon). English: turmeric.

Range

India. Widely cultivated in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Stem (Rhizome): Hot, sharp, bitter, and savory, use of the rhizome known for reversing many ailments and increasing overall longevity. It is used in making different medicines, ointments, and smoke treatments (herbs scattered over glowing embers of charcoal and patient sits nearby with large basket over which blanket placed) for a variety of conditions, including digestive problems, very high fevers, eye problems, male-related troubles, coughs, asthma and bronchitis, and diarrhea. Powdered turmeric is mixed with water and ingested, burned to create fumes for inhaling, boiled in water for bathing, or tied in a cloth bundle applied to different areas of the body needing treatment. Turmeric reduces fevers, lowers post-partum high blood pressure, expels “bad blood” left in the body after childbirth, and purifies the blood. It relieves post-partum weakness, cold skin, breast aches or inflammation, bloating and edema associated with female disorders, itches, and rashes; and is also used to treat an unclean or infected uterus, aching of the eyes, colds and fevers. Mixed with powder from the bark of let-htoke (Holarrhena antidysenterica) and a moderate amount of honey, turmeric is stewed with water and taken as a remedy for dysentery and for vomiting or otherwise passing blood. Mixed with warm water and held in the mouth, it is used to treat inflamed gums and toothaches; alternatively it is mixed with salt and pressed into the root of the affected tooth. Taken with a small amount of salt three times daily, turmeric eases bloating and pain from flatulence. Three thin slices of the sun-dried rhizome daily alleviates gastritis. Mixed with lime, turmeric relieves cysts, knots in muscles, and bruises, and turmeric powder is applied to wounds to stop excessive bleeding. Ingesting a mixture of turmeric, brown rock sugar, and water from washing rice treats bladder stones; a mixture of turmeric, juice from zee-hpyu (Phyllanthus emblica) and honey relieves urinary infections.

Notes

The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by Duke and Ayensu (1985). The various medicinal uses of this species are also discussed in Perry (1980). She notes that the main tubers, over a year old, are used in medicine while the lateral rhizomes are used in cooking.

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe

Names

Myanmar: sa-nwin. English: long zedoary, zedoary, round zedoary.

Range

From the Himalayas to Chittagong south into Indonesia, especially northeastern India; cultivated elsewhere. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Uses

Stem (Rhizome): Used as tonic for the heart; also used as mouthwash.

Notes

“The rhizome is official in many pharmacopeias. Everywhere it is regarded as a stomachic and carminative.” In China it is used as a tonic nutrient and a resolvent of swellings and contusions; it is also used to dissolve blood clots, promote circulation, and to reduce abdominal pain. In Taiwan it is used to treat heart complaints, cholera, gonorrhea, irregular menstruation, and snakebites. In Indo-China it is used as a tonic. In the Philippines, ash from the rhizome is applied to wounds and ulcers (Perry 1980).

The medicinal use of this species in India is discussed in Jain and DeFilipps (1991). Here the rhizome is crushed and mixed with water for making a bath to treat jaundice. Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in Duke and Ayensu (1985).

Reported constituents are volatile oil, cineole, camphene, zingiberene, borneol, camphor, curcumin, zedoarin, gum, resin, and starch (Perry 1980).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

3. Elettaria Maton

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton

Names

Myanmar: hparlar hpyu. English: lesser cardamon.

Range

Native to southern India; cultivated widely in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.

Use

Seed: Used to cure headaches. Eat roasted seeds with medicines to cure urinary disorders. Together with the roots of peik-chin (Piper longum) can be made into a powder, mixed with butter to cure heart disease. Used to make into medicines to treat irregular menstruation and menopause symptoms. Used to make into smallpox medicines. Crushed and mixed with honey to treat coughing, asthma, and sore throat.

Reference

Agricultural Corporation (1980).

4. Kaempferia L

Kaempferia elegans (Wall.) Baker

Names

Myanmar: kun-kado. English: green ripple peacock ginger, purple-flowered resurection lily, resurection lily.

Range

China (Sichuan), India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Mon, Taninthayi, and Yangon.

Use

Stem (Rhizome): Used to treat dysentery.

Notes

Many Kaempferia species are utilized as medicinal plants throughout Southeast Asia. The rhizome of Kaempferia is ground into a paste and applied externally for the treatment of sprains (Burkill 1966).

Reference

Nordal (1963).

Nordal (1963).

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our deep appreciation to Shirley L. Maina and Beverly Wolpert for their assistance in organizing and preparing various treatments. We are indebted to Thi Thi Ta for her translation skills. Smithsonian interns Allen Dawson and Hannah Ahn gave their valuable time during the course of this project. We thank W. John Kress for his encouragement to prepare this manuscript. We thank two anonymous reviewers and the editor for their insightful and constructive comments on this manuscript.

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Appendix 1

Common names index

achiote

Bixa orellana

adalut

Canna indica

Adam’s apple

Tabernaemontana divaricate

adlay

Coix lacryma-jobi

adlay millet

Coix lacryma-jobi

adulsa

Justicia adhatoda

aeginetia

Aeginetia indica

aerial yam

Dioscorea bulbifera

aerva

Aerva javanica

African marigold

Tagetes erecta

agarwood

Aquilaria malaccensis

agrimony

Agrimonia eupatoria

ah-lu-thi

Dioscorea bulbifera

aihre

Curcuma longa

air plant

Bryophyllum pinnatum

air potato

Dioscorea bulbifera

aka-wadi

Passiflora quadrangularis

a-kyaw ta-htaung

Plantago major

akyaw

Aquilaria malaccensis

alder

Alnus nepalensis

Alexandrian laurel

Calophyllum inophyllum

Alexandrian senna

Senna alexandrina

aloe

Aloe vera

aloewood

Aquilaria malaccensis

alo-kyu

Arundo donax

American arrowroot

Maranta arundinacea

American upland cotton

Gossypium hirsutum

amoora

Aglaia cucullata

angel’s trumpet

Brugmansia suaveolens

annatto

Bixa orellana

Annie’s lace

Cyperus scariosus

antamray

Sinapis alba

anya-kokk

Albizia lebbeck

apple of Peru

Nicandra physalodes

apricot blush foxglove

Digitalis purpurea

ar ganui

Mesua ferrea

Arabian coffee

Coffea arabica

Arabian senna

Senna alexandrina

Arabica coffee

Coffea arabica

aramina

Urena lobata

ar-do

Canna indica

arrowroot

Maranta arundinacea

arthaw-ka

Polyalthia longifolia

asana

Bridelia retusa

aseik

Antiaris toxicaria

aseik-pye

Leucaena leucocephala

aseik-taya

Stachytarpheta indica

ash pumpkin

Benincasa hispida

Asian markhamia

Markhamia stipulata

asoka tree

Saraca indica

asparagus

Asparagus officinalis

Assyrian plum

Cordia myxa

aug-mai-hpyu

Clitoria ternatea

aukkyu

Bischofia javanica

aukkywe

Bischofia javanica

aung-me-nyo

Clitoria ternatea

Australian asthma weed

Euphorbia hirta

Australian fever tree

Eucalyptus globulus

Australian pine

Casuarina equisetifolia

Australian red cedar

Toona sureni

avaram

Senna auriculata

aweya

Leucaena leucocephala

awsa

Annona squamosa

awzar

Annona squamosa

azat

Annona squamosa

Aztec marigold

Tagetes erecta

babchi

Cullen corylifolium

babu

Acacia nilotica

babul

Acacia nilotica

badan

Terminalia catappa

bael tree

Aegle marmelos

bahon

Flemingia chappar

Phyllodium pulchellum

baing-daung

Rhizophora mucronata

ball tree

Aegle marmelos

balloon vine

Cardiospermum halicacabum

balsam-apple

Momordica charantia

balsam-pear

Momordica charantia

baluma-shaw

Kydia calycina

balu-wah

Abelmoschus moschatus

bamachet

Cratoxylum formosum

bambwe

Careya arborea

ban

Boehmeria nivea

banda

Terminalia catappa

Barbados flower

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

Barbados nut

Jatropha curcas

bar-kyaw pin

Plantago major

barleria

Barleria prionitis

bastard indigo

Tephrosia purpurea

bastard jute

Hibiscus cannabinus

bastard sandalwood

Mansonia gagei

bastard-teak

Butea monosperma

baw-sagaing

Leucaena leucocephala

bawzagaing

Leucaena leucocephala

beach morning glory

Ipomoea pes-caprae

bead tree

Adenanthera pavonina

beautyberry

Callicarpa macrophylla

bebya

Rotheca serrata

beda

Monochoria vaginalis

beddome

Terminalia tomentosa

beeda khutdai

Senna alata

beefwood

Casuarina equisetifolia

begar’s-tick

Tadehagi triquetrum

begyo

Rotheca serrata

bein-hpo

Jatropha multifida

bein-nwe

Hiptage benghalensis

bein-sa

Mitragyna speciosa

bela tree

Aegle marmelos

bell bush

Brugmansia suaveolens

bell pepper

Capsicum annuum

belleric

Terminalia bellirica

bellyache bush

Jatropha gossypiifolia

Ben nut

Moringa oleifera

Bengal arum

Typhonium trilobatum

Bengal quince

Aegle marmelos

beng-kong

Tamarindus indica

Benjamin tree

Ficus benjamina

ber-hrum

Glycine max

betel

Piper betle

betel pepper

Piper betle

betel vine

Piper betle

bezat

Chromolaena odorata

bhang

Cannabis sativa

bicolor Persian violet

Exacum tetragonum

bilat-chinbaung

Hibiscus sabdariffa

bimli jute

Hibiscus cannabinus

bimlipatum jute

Hibiscus cannabinus

bird’s nest

Daucus carota

bishop’s weed

Trachyspermum ammi

bishop’s wood

Bischofia javanica

bi-thawar

Linum usitatissimum

bitter aloe

Aloe vera

bitter cucumber

Momordica charantia

bitter gourd

Momordica charantia

bitter melon

Momordica charantia

bitter orange

Citrus × aurantium

bitter stick

Swertia chirayita

bitterwood

Quassia indica

bittu bark

Eurycoma longifolia

bizat

Chromolaena odorata

black chuglam

Terminalia citrina

black creeper

Ichnocarpus frutescens

black cumin

Nigella sativa

black cutch

Acacia catechu

black oil plant

Celastrus paniculatus

black pepper

Piper nigrum

black plum

Premna mollissima

Syzygium cumini

blackberry tree

Vitex glabrata

black-eyed Susan vine

Thunbergia erecta

bleeding-heart vine

Clerodendrum thomsoniae

blimbing

Averrhoa carambola

blood flower

Asclepias curassavica

blue aloe

Agave vera-cruz

blue fountain bush

Rotheca serrata

blue gum

Eucalyptus globulus

blue pea

Clitoria ternatea

bluebird vine

Verbena officinalis

bo tree

Ficus religiosa

boat lily

Tradescantia spathacea

bodhi nyaung

Ficus religiosa

bok-pyin

Diospyros malabarica

boktaung

Persicaria chinensis

Pteridium aquilinum

bombax

Bombax ceiba

Bombay hemp

Hibiscus cannabinus

bomma-yaza

Rauvolfia serpentina

bommayazar

Rauvolfia serpentina

Bonavista bean

Lablab purpureus

bonmathane-payoke

Blumea balsamifera

boundary mark

Cordyline fruticosa

brake

Pteridium aquilinum

braken

Pteridium aquilinum

brank

Fagopyrum esculentum

Brazilian tea

Stachytarpheta indica

bread flower

Vallaris solanacea

bridal couch tree

Hymenodictyon orixense

broad-leaved plantain

Plantago major

Piper betle

buckwheat

Fagopyrum esculentum

budatharana

Canna indica

budi-nan

Mentha arvensis

bur mallow

Urena lobata

Burma linseed

Hygrophila phlomoides

Burmese ironwood

Xylia xylocarpa

Burmese storax

Altingia excelsa

burrbush

Triumfetta rhomboidea

burrflower tree

Neolamarckia cadamba

buru

Piper betle

bush clock-vine

Thunbergia erecta

buttefly-weed

Chromolaena odorata

butterfly pea

Clitoria ternatea

butterfly tree

Bauhinia purpurea

butterfly weed

Asclepias curassavica

butterweed

Senecio densiflorus

bwe-baung

Spondias pinnata

byin-gale

Memecylon edule

byu-chidauk

Rhizophora mucronata

cabbage

Brassica oleracea

cadamba

Neolamarckia cadamba

Caesar weed

Urena lobata

cajeput

Melaleuca cajuputi

calamus

Acorus calamus

California cypress

Cupressus goveniana

camel’s foot tree

Bauhinia purpurea

camphor

Cinnamomum camphora

camphor tree

Cinnamomum camphora

cananga

Cananga odorata

candle bush

Senna alata

canna

Canna indica

cannonball mangrove

Xylocarpus granatum

canone casaun

Allium cepa

Canton ginger

Zingiber officinale

cape gooseberry

Physalis peruviana

caper bush

Capparis flavicans

capoc

Ceiba pentandra

carallia

Carallia brachiata

caramba

Averrhoa carambola

carambola

Averrhoa carambola

caravalla

Cleome gynandra

carrizo

Phragmites karka

cart-track-plant

Plantago major

casauboh

Croton persimilis

casaun-phet-tine

Allium sativum

cashew nut

Anacardium occidentale

cassie

Acacia farnesiana

castor bean

Ricinus communis

castor oil plant

Ricinus communis

casuarina

Casuarina equisetifolia

cat’s whiskers

Orthosiphon aristatus

catbrier

Smilax aspera

catechu

Acacia catechu

cayenne pepper

Capsicum annuum

ceiba

Ceiba pentandra

celery

Apium graveolens

Ceylon caper

Capparis zeylanica

Ceylon cinnamon

Cinnamomum tamala

Ceylon citronella

Cymbopogon nardus

Ceylon hydrolea

Hydrolea zeylanica

Ceylon ironwood

Mesua ferrea

Ceylon leadwort

Plumbago zeylanica

Ceylon oak

Schleichera oleosa

Ceylon rosewood

Albizia odoratissima

cha li shu

Anneslea fragrans

chang zi ma quia

Strychnos wallichiana

cha-om

Acacia pennata

chaulmoogra

Hydnocarpus kurzii

chay-ahkya

Phyllanthus emblica

chaya-kaya

Aphanamixis polystachya

chayar pin

Mimusops elengi

chay-thee pin

Semecarpus anacardium

che

Semecarpus anacardium

cheerojee-oil plant

Buchanania lancifolia

chek-awn

Abrus precatorius

cherry tomato

Physalis peruviana

chewing gum tree

Manilkara zapota

chicken eyes

Abrus precatorius

chicle tree

Manilkara zapota

chili pepper

Capsicum annuum

China grass

Boehmeria nivea

chin-baung-gyi

Hibiscus cannabinus

chin-baung-kha

Hibiscus cannabinus

chinbaung-ni

Hibiscus sabdariffa

chin-bong

Hibiscus sabdariffa

chinebaune

Hibiscus sabdariffa

Chinese banyan

Ficus retusa

Chinese bitter-cucumber

Momordica cochinchinensis

Chinese box tree

Limonia acidissima

Chinese date

Ziziphus jujuba

Chinese elder

Sambucus javanica

Chinese guger tree

Schima wallichii

Chinese honeysuckle

Combretum indicum

Chinese ixora

Ixora chinensis

Chinese jujube

Ziziphus jujuba

Chinese knotweed

Persicaria chinensis

Chinese mustard

Sinapis alba

Chinese parsley

Coriandrum sativum

Chinese silk plant

Boehmeria nivea

Chinese smartweed

Persicaria chinensis

Chinese waterspinach

Ipomoea aquatica

Chinese-cucumber

Momordica cochinchinensis

chinyok

Garuga pinnata

chirauli nut

Buchanania lancifolia

Chittagong wood

Chukrasia tabularis

chloranthus

Chloranthus elatior

chota aura

Chamaecrista pumila

chyahkya

Phyllanthus emblica

chyamka

Magnolia champaca

chy-inbawngla

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

chying-hkrang-ahpraw

Sinapis alba

chying-htawng-la

Colebrookea oppositifolia

chying-ma

Rhus chinensis

cinnamon

Cinnamomum verum

citrine myrobalan

Terminalia citrina

citronella

Cymbopogon nardus

citronella grass

Cymbopogon citratus

Cymbopogon nardus

clammy cherry

Cordia myxa

claoxylon

Claoxylon indicum

clausena

Clausena excavata

clearing nut tree

Strychnos potatorum

Swertia chirayita

climbing lily

Gloriosa superba

climbing ylang-ylang

Artabotrys hexapetalus

clove

Syzygium aromaticum

clove tree

Syzygium aromaticum

clustered fishtail palm

Caryota mitis

cobra plant

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

cobra’s saffron

Mesua ferrea

cock’s comb

Celosia argentea

cocklebur

Agrimonia eupatoria

coffee

Coffea arabica

common allamanda

Allamanda cathartica

common buckwheat

Fagopyrum esculentum

common cowitch

Mucuna pruriens

common emetic nut

Catunaregam spinosa

common foxglove

Digitalis purpurea

common ginger

Zingiber officinale

common ironwood

Casuarina equisetifolia

common jujube

Ziziphus jujuba

common plantain

Plantago major

common purslane

Portulaca oleracea

common reed

Phragmites karka

common sage

Salvia officinalis

common sesban

Sesbania sesban

congo-jute

Urena lobata

copperleaf

Acalypha indica

Acalypha wilkesiana

coral bush

Jatropha multifida

coral jasmine

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

coral pea

Adenanthera pavonina

coral wood

Adenanthera pavonina

cordate monochoria

Monochoria vaginalis

coriander

Coriandrum sativum

corn mint

Mentha arvensis

corn

Zea mays

cotton tree

Gossypium hirsutum

country fig

Ficus hispida

country gooseberry

Averrhoa carambola

cow soapwort

Vaccaria hispanica

cowcockle

Vaccaria hispanica

cowhage

Mucuna pruriens

cowherb

Vaccaria hispanica

cowitch

Mucuna pruriens

crab eyes

Abrus precatorius

crape gardenia

Tabernaemontana divaricate

crape jasmine

Tabernaemontana divaricate

creat

Andrographis paniculata

creeper

Trichosanthes tricuspidata

crepe ginger

Cheilocostus speciosus

crested cock’s comb

Celosia argentea

creyat root

Andrographis paniculata

crot-kyeei

Carica papaya

croton

Croton persimilis

crown flower

Calotropis gigantea

cubeb pepper

Piper cubeba

cucha cara

Elephantopus scaber

cucumber

Cucumis sativus

cultivated celery

Apium graveolens

curltop ladysthumb

Persicaria pulchra

curlytop knotweed

Persicaria pulchra

curlytop smartweed

Persicaria pulchra

custard apple

Annona squamosa

cutch

Acacia catechu

cycad

Cycas rumphii

cynometra

Cynometra ramiflora

da-ma-nge

Spatholobus parviflorus

dana-thuka

Scoparia dulcis

dancing daisy

Tanacetum cinerariifolium

dandagu

Dracaena angustifolia

dan-da-lun

Moringa oleifera

danghkyam kaba

Holarrhena pubescens

danghkyam-kaii

Wrightia arborea

dangkyam

Holarrhena pubescens

dangywe

Senna italica

Senna tora

dan-la-ku

Dracaena angustifolia

dantalet

Dracaena angustifolia

dant-kywei

Senna tora

danyin

Archidendron jiringa

dap

Terminalia tomentosa

dar-na-thu-kha

Scoparia dulcis

dasheen

Colocasia antiquorum

dauk-yut

Symplocos racemosa

daung-satpya

Callicarpa macrophylla

daung-sok

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

daungyan

Garcinia xanthochymus

dawe-hmaing-nwe

Combretum indicum

daw-hke

Clausena excavata

dawyan-ban

Garcinia xanthochymus

dayflower

Commelina paludosa

Deckaner hemp

Hibiscus cannabinus

deer’s foot

Convolvulus arvensis

devil tree

Alstonia scholaris

devil’s claw

Martynia annua

devil’s cotton

Abroma augustum

devil’s horsewhip

Achyranthes aspera

devil’s plague

Daucus carota

devil’s trumpet

Datura metel

dewali-pan

Tagetes erecta

dheniaani

Olax scandens

didok-chi

Dactyloctenium aegyptium

diffuse hogweed

Commicarpus chinensis

digitalis

Digitalis purpurea

dill

Anethum graveolens

dinghkri

Senna tora

ding-kok

Spondias pinnata

dita bark

Alstonia scholaris

divine herb

Sigesbeckia orientalis

Entada phaseoloides

dock-leaf smartweed

Persicaria pulchra

dodder

Cuscuta reflexa

dog bush

Blumea balsamifera

dog fruit

Archidendron jiringa

dogtail

Buddleja asiatica

dona-ban

Artemisia dracunculus

donka

Sandoricum koetjape

downy jasmine

Jasminum multiflorum

dragon’s blood

Cordyline fruticosa

drooping fig

Ficus semicordata

drumstick tree

Moringa oleifera

duckweed

Portulaca oleracea

dumsa-gyaw

Hymenodictyon orixense

Dutchman’s pipe

Aristolochia tagala

dwabok

Kydia calycina

dwarf copperleaf

Alternanthera sessilis

dwarf poinciana

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

dwarf white bauhinia

Bauhinia acuminata

dysentery bush

Grewia polygama

eaglewood

Aquilaria malaccensis

earth nut

Arachis hypogaea

East Indian rosebay

Tabernaemontana divaricate

East Indian screw tree

Helicteres isora

eclipta

Eclipta prostrata

eddo

Colocasia antiquorum

egayit

Mayodendron igneum

egayit-ni

Mayodendron igneum

eggplant

Solanum melongena

Egyptian bean

Lablab purpureus

Egyptian grass

Dactyloctenium aegyptium

Egyptian rattlepod

Sesbania sesban

eik-thara

Aristolochia indica

eik-tha-ra-muli

Aristolochia indica

elderberry

Sambucus javanica

elephant apple

Dillenia indica

Limonia acidissima

elephant yam

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

elephantopus

Elephantopus scaber

emblic

Phyllanthus emblica

emetic nut

Catunaregam spinosa

empress candle plant

Senna alata

emu-berry

Grewia polygama

eng-si

Ziziphus jujuba

estragon

Artemisia dracunculus

European dill

Anethum graveolens

exile oleander

Cascabela thevetia

falsa

Grewia asiatica

false ashoka

Polyalthia longifolia

false daisy

Eclipta prostrata

false dogwood

Sapindus saponaria

false pareira brava

Cissampelos pareira

false saffron

Carthamus tinctorius

false tarragon

Artemisia dracunculus

fennel

Foeniculum vulgare

fern asparagus

Asparagus filicinus

fetid passionflower

Passiflora foetida

fever grass

Cymbopogon citratus

field bindweed

Convolvulus arvensis

field mint

Mentha arvensis

fire plant

Plumbago indica

firedragon

Acalypha wilkesiana

fire-flame bush

Woodfordia fruticosa

fish poison climber

Millettia pachycarpa

fishtail palm

Caryota mitis

five-leaved chaste tree

Vitex negundo

five-leaved yam

Dioscorea pentaphylla

flagroot

Acorus calamus

flamboyant

Delonix regia

flame lily

Gloriosa superba

flame-of-the-forest

Butea monosperma

flame-of-the-woods

Ixora coccinea

flat-top mille grains

Oldenlandia corymbosa

flax

Linum usitatissimum

fleshy spurge

Euphorbia antiquorum

floppers

Bryophyllum pinnatum

flor-de-joja

Phyllanthus niruri

four o’clock

Mirabilis jalapa

fragrant padri-tree

Stereospermum chelonoides

frangipani

Plumeria rubra

French tarragon

Artemisia dracunculus

freshwater mangrove

Carallia brachiata

fringed hibiscus

Hibiscus schizopetalus

fritillaria

Fritillaria cirrhosa

gaiyin

Momordica charantia

gale of the wind

Phyllanthus niruri

gallow grass

Cannabis sativa

gamone-kyet-thon-phyu

Fritillaria cirrhosa

gamon-kyeethun-phyu

Fritillaria cirrhosa

gangala

Cleome gynandra

Spermacoce hispida

gangawlwe

Anneslea fragrans

garcinia

Garcinia xanthochymus

garden onion

Allium cepa

garden purslane

Portulaca oleracea

garden quinine

Volkameria inermis

garden sage

Salvia officinalis

gargu

Heynea trijuga

garlic

Allium sativum

garuga

Garuga pinnata

gau-gau

Mesua ferrea

gawhgu

Cassia fistula

giant dodder

Cuscuta reflexa

giant granadilla

Passiflora quadrangularis

giant reed

Arundo donax

giant swallowart

Dregea volubilis

giant thorny bamboo

Bambusa bambos

ginbeik

Basella alba

glabrous greenbrier

Smilax glabra

glory bower

Volkameria inermis

glory tree

Clerodendrum thomsoniae

gmelina

Gmelina arborea

goat’s foot creeper

Ipomoea pes-caprae

goatweed

Ageratum conyzoides

gold mohur

Delonix regia

golden apple

Aegle marmelos

golden cassia

Senna italica

golden champak

Magnolia champaca

golden mahogany

Chukrasia tabularis

golden shower tree

Cassia fistula

golden trumpet

Allamanda cathartica

goldenberry

Physalis peruviana

goldthread

Coptis teeta

gon

Boehmeria nivea

gon-nyin

Entada phaseoloides

gooseberry tree

Phyllanthus acidus

goosefoot

Chenopodium album

grass nut

Arachis hypogaea

grass

Cannabis sativa

gray mangrove

Avicennia officinalis

great bougainvillea

Bougainvillea spectabilis

great plantain

Plantago major

greater galangal

Alpinia galanga

Grecian foxglove

Digitalis lanata

green champa

Polyalthia longifolia

green ripple peacock ginger

Kaempferia elegans

green sagewart

Artemisia dracunculus

greenbrier

Smilax aspera

ground cherry

Physalis peruviana

groundnut

Arachis hypogaea

guava

Psidium guajava

guaymochil

Pithecellobium dulce

guest tree

Kleinhovia hospita

gum-arabic

Acacia nilotica

gumhar

Gmelina arborea

gum-lac

Schleichera oleosa

gumma

Leucas cephalotes

guntgaw

Mesua ferrea

gwe

Spondias pinnata

gwedauk-nwe

Dregea volubilis

gwi-lakajawng

Girardinia diversifolia

gwin-nge

Mucuna pruriens

gyee baitwine

Trachyspermum ammi

gyin

Zingiber officinale

gyo

Schleichera oleosa

gyo-pan

Flemingia chappar

gyo-sagauk

Chrozophora plicata

hairy fig

Ficus hispida

hairy indigo

Grewia hirsuta

hangnan

Acacia pennata

haprut

Dillenia indica

harvest-lice

Agrimonia eupatoria

haw hkan kaju

Solanum anguivi

ha-yung

Croton persimilis

heart’s pea

Cardiospermum halicacabum

heart-leaved moonseed

Tinospora cordifolia

heart-seed

Cardiospermum halicacabum

hedge euphorbia

Euphorbia neriifolia

heynea

Walsura pinnata

hibiscus burr

Urena lobata

hi-ga-yone

Mimosa pudica

hill glory bower

Clerodendrum infortunatum

Himalayan nettle

Girardinia diversifolia

Himalayan wild cherry

Prunus cerasoides

Hindu datura

Datura metel

hingala

Cleome gynandra

hingalar

Oldenlandia corymbosa

hing-hang

Acacia concinna

hingut-pho

Stereospermum colais

hingut-po

Stereospermum colais

hin-nu-new-subauk

Amaranthus spinosus

hin-nu-nwe

Amaranthus cruentus

hiptage

Hiptage benghalensis

hkajang-nai

Streblus asper

hkala-shwang

Neolamarckia cadamba

hkam mai

Phyllanthus emblica

hkamari

Salix tetrasperma

hkang-awng

Antiaris toxicaria

hka-shatawi

Bischofia javanica

hko-ma-awn

Mucuna pruriens

hko-mak-awa

Mucuna pruriens

hkum-bang-pan

Cymbopogon citratus

hla brairot

Justicia adhatoda

hla cawi bactine

Coccinia grandis

hla ponyork

Morinda angustifolia

hla pruckkha

Acacia concinna

hla-crote kyee

Carica papaya

hlahnip chai

Centella asiatica

hla-kanin kyam

Ipomoea alba

hla-parite-baikayah

Citrus limon

hla-pruck-hka-hnoke

Acacia pennata

hle-kanan

Bridelia retusa

hmaing

Dodonaea viscosa

hmam-gyi

Sesamum indicum

hmandaw

Garcinia xanthochymus

hman-phyu

Tamilnadia uliginosa

hman-thein

Cinnamomum bejolghota

hmanthin

Cinnamomum verum

hmaw-yan

Strobilanthes auriculatus

hmya-seik

Antiaris toxicaria

hnan

Sesamum indicum

hnan-kyat

Linum usitatissimum

hnaw

Haldina cordifolia

hnget-chauk

Eucalyptus globulus

hnin-thi-pin

Syzygium jambos

hoary basil

Ocimum americanum

hog plum

Spondias pinnata

hog-pasture brake

Pteridium aquilinum

holly-leaved acanthus

Acanthus ilicifolius

holy basil

Ocimum tenuiflorum

hon

Millettia pachycarpa

hopseed bush

Dodonaea viscosa

hopseed

Dodonaea viscosa

horn of plenty

Datura metel

horse bean

Canavalia ensiformis

horseradish tree

Moringa oleifera

hot pepper

Capsicum annuum

hou-no

Careya arborea

hpadawng

Mallotus philippensis

hpah-ha

Acacia concinna

hpak ha

Acacia concinna

hpak-ha-awn

Acacia pennata

hpak-ko-suk

Celastrus paniculatus

hpak-lam-mon-long

Senna alata

hpak-mong

Cordia dichotoma

hpak-se-saw

Momordica cochinchinensis

hpak-si-so

Premna amplectens

hpan-kha-ngai

Terminalia citrina

hpan-khar-thee

Terminalia chebula

hparlar hpyu

Elettaria cardamomum

hpat

Xylia xylocarpa

hpaung-hpaung-thi

Physalis peruviana

hpawng-awn

Mallotus philippensis

hpon-mathein

Blumea balsamifera

hpun ja

Aegle marmelos

hpun

Carallia brachiata

hpun-hpawk

Mayodendron igneum

hpunnam-makawk

Spondias pinnata

hroirwk

Terminalia bellirica

hsan-to-nouk

Glycine max

hsanwin

Curcuma longa

hsay gandamar

Tanacetum cinerariifolium

hsay min kyaung

Euphorbia hirta

hsay-dan

Hygrophila phlomoides

hsay-kha gyi

Andrographis paniculata

hsay-kyaw gyi

Plantago major

hsee mee-tauk

Gloriosa superba

hsee-cho

Orthosiphon aristatus

hseik hpalu

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

hset-hnayarthi

Cascabela thevetia

hsin-doan manwai

Tinospora cordifolia

hsu bok gyi

Acacia pennata

hsu pan

Carthamus tinctorius

htakyu

Phyllanthus emblica

htamone-chort

Millingtonia hortensis

hta-muck

Mimosa pudica

hta-nah

Zingiber montanum

htaura

Acacia pennata

htingra-hpraw

Justicia adhatoda

hyacinth bean

Lablab purpureus

hyang

Alnus nepalensis

hygrophila

Hygrophila auriculata

iceplant

Martynia annua

Indian acalypha

Acalypha indica

Indian almond

Terminalia catappa

Indian bael

Aegle marmelos

Indian bean

Lablab purpureus

Indian birthwort

Aristolochia indica

Aristolochia tagala

Indian cherry

Cordia myxa

Indian coral tree

Erythrina variegata

Indian cork tree

Millingtonia hortensis

Indian dill

Anethum graveolens

Indian elm

Holoptelea integrifolia

Indian fir tree

Polyalthia longifolia

Indian gentian

Swertia chirayita

Indian goldthread

Coptis teeta

Indian gum tree

Acacia nilotica

Indian heliotrope

Heliotropium indicum

Indian hemp

Abroma augustum

Hibiscus cannabinus

Indian jalap

Ipomoea alba

Indian kamala

Mallotus philippensis

Indian kapok

Bombax ceiba

Indian laburnum

Cassia fistula

Indian laurel

Calophyllum inophyllum

Ficus retusa

Indian lilac

Azadirachta indica

Indian long pepper

Piper longum

Indian madder

Rubia cordifolia

Indian mast tree

Polyalthia longifolia

Indian mulberry

Morinda citrifolia

Indian nightshade

Solanum anguivi

Indian oak

Barringtonia acutangula

Indian pennywort

Centella asiatica

Indian persimmon

Diospyros malabarica

Indian privit

Vitex negundo

Indian red water-lily

Nymphaea rubra

Indian rhododendron

Melastoma malabathricum

Indian rose-chestnut

Mesua ferrea

Indian sandalwood

Santalum album

Indian senna

Senna alexandrina

Indian shot

Canna indica

Indian snakeroot

Rauvolfia serpentina

Indian sorrel

Hibiscus sabdariffa

Indian spinach

Basella alba

Indian spiral ginger

Cheilocostus speciosus

Indian spurgetree

Euphorbia neriifolia

Indian squirrel tail

Colebrookea oppositifolia

Indian trumpet flower

Oroxylum indicum

Indian weed

Sigesbeckia orientalis

Indian wild pepper

Vitex trifolia

Indian-gooseberry

Phyllanthus emblica

in-kathit

Erythrina variegata

ironwood tree

Memecylon edule

Mesua ferrea

irul

Xylia xylocarpa

ivy gourd

Coccinia grandis

iwarancusa grass

Cymbopogon jwarancusa

jaboncillo

Sapindus saponaria

jack bean

Canavalia ensiformis

jack in the bush

Chromolaena odorata

jackfruit

Artocarpus heterophyllus

Jacob’s coat

Acalypha wilkesiana

jail

Lannea coromandelica

jai-nool

Mesua ferrea

Jamaica sorrel

Hibiscus sabdariffa

jamani-chon

Chromolaena odorata

jambolan plum

Syzygium cumini

jambu

Syzygium cumini

Jamestown weed

Datura stramonium

janah lapoot

Acacia concinna

jangbawngla

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

japanese mint

Mentha arvensis

Japanese pepper

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

jasmine tree

Millingtonia hortensis

Java flower

Ficus benjamina

Java pepper

Piper cubeba

Java plum

Syzygium cumini

Java tea

Orthosiphon aristatus

Javanese elderberry

Sambucus javanica

jaw-gale

Delonix regia

jequirity

Abrus precatorius

jhingam poma

Lannea coromandelica

jhingam

Lannea coromandelica

jimson weed

Datura stramonium

jingbawngla

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

Job’s tears

Coix lacryma-jobi

joyweed

Alternanthera sessilis

jujube

Ziziphus jujuba

jungle flame ixora

Ixora coccinea

jungle geranium

Ixora coccinea

jyula

Mussaenda macrophylla

ka-aung

Ficus hispida

kabwi

Casuarina equisetifolia

kadam tree

Neolamarckia cadamba

kadat-ngan

Artabotrys hexapetalus

Cananga odorata

kadauk-sat

Monochoria vaginalis

kadawn

Jasminum multiflorum

kadawnla

Jasminum multiflorum

kado-po

Ageratum conyzoides

kadu-hpo

Ageratum conyzoides

kadung

Bombax ceiba

kadu-pyan

Cyanthillium cinereum

kadut

Ficus hispida

ka-dut

Ficus semicordata

kaisun

Allium cepa

kal

Cordia dichotoma

kalabin

Kopsia fruticosa

kala-magyi

Pithecellobium dulce

ka-la-mak

Mansonia gagei

kala-met

Mansonia gagei

kala-myetsi

Cardiospermum halicacabum

kala-myetsi-pinzauk-gyi

Physalis peruviana

kala-pan

Tagetes erecta

kala-pi-sein

Ocimum tenuiflorum

kalaw

Hydnocarpus kurzii

kalaw-so

Hydnocarpus kurzii

ka-leik

Coix lacryma-jobi

kalein

Coix lacryma-jobi

kalein-thi

Coix lacryma-jobi

kalisar

Ichnocarpus frutescens

kalo

Colocasia antiquorum

kam kan

Mesua ferrea

kamala tree

Mallotus philippensis

kame

Quassia indica

kanack champa

Pterospermum acerifolium

kana-hpaw

Enydra fluctuans

kanah-tanow pryin

Euphorbia hirta

kanakho

Croton tiglium

kangyok

Plumbago indica

kan-gyok-phyu

Plumbago zeylanica

kannyut

Asparagus officinalis

kant-balu

Trachyspermum roxburghianum

kant-choke-ni

Plumbago indica

kan-tin

Indigofera cassioides

ka-nyut

Asparagus filicinus

kao mai

Butea monosperma

kao-hko

Butea superba

ka-phi

Coffea arabica

kapok bush

Aerva javanica

kapok

Ceiba pentandra

kasawt-kha

Solanum anguivi

kashit-ka

Toona sureni

kasondeh

Cordia dichotoma

kassod tree

Senna siamea

katcho

Smilax guianensis

katcho-gyi

Smilax glabra

kathaw-pok

Senna italica

kathit

Erythrina variegata

kathu

Indigofera cassioides

kat-say-nei

Urena lobata

katsi-ne

Sida spinosa

kat-si-ne

Triumfetta rhomboidea

kat-sine

Urena lobata

katsine-galay

Triumfetta rhomboidea

ka-tu-pin

Elephantopus scaber

kauk-hlaing-ti

Aeginetia indica

kauk-yoe nwai

Convolvulus arvensis

kauk-yo-nwe

Convolvulus arvensis

kawain-hnoot

Alpinia galanga

kawaintoot

Alpinia officinarum

kawe-thi

Luffa cylindrica

kawl-tung-peng

Bombax ceiba

kaw-ta-nook

Mesua ferrea

kaya

Mimosa pudica

kaya-chon

Acanthus ilicifolius

kayan

Solanum melongena

kayan-kazaw

Solanum rudepannum

kazaw-kha

Solanum rudepannum

ka-zo

Cassia fistula

kazun yoe-n

Ipomoea aquatica

kazun-galay

Ipomoea aquatica

kazun-ywet

Ipomoea aquatica

kenaf

Hibiscus cannabinus

key lime

Citrus aurantiifolia

khabaung yay-kyi

Strychnos potatorum

khaing-shwe-wa

Berberis nepalensis

khan tauk

Coptis teeta

khan

Carissa spinarum

khanzat

Carissa spinarum

khar-grope

Amaranthus spinosus

khaung-yan

Hibiscus schizopetalus

khaung-yan-ywet-hla

Hibiscus schizopetalus

khaya

Argemone mexicana

khayan-kazaw-kha

Solanum anguivi

kha-yar

Acanthus ilicifolius

kha-yar-chon

Acanthus ilicifolius

khayay pin

Mimusops elengi

khinbok

Vallaris solanacea

khine-shwe-war

Berberis nepalensis

khu-than

Hymenodictyon orixense

khwar-nyo-gyi

Clematis smilacifolia

khwati

Dillenia indica

khwe-laya

Mucuna pruriens

khwele

Mucuna pruriens

khwe-ya

Mucuna pruriens

kia-bok

Aegle marmelos

kidney cotton

Gossypium barbadense

kidney tea plant

Orthosiphon aristatus

kikao

Butea monosperma

kin peint

Basella alba

kin pone

Coccinia grandis

king of bitters

Andrographis paniculata

kinmon

Coccinia grandis

kinmun-gyin

Acacia concinna

kin-pun chin

Acacia concinna

kin-thabut-gyi

Chukrasia tabularis

kitchen sage

Salvia officinalis

klaw

Aquilaria malaccensis

klor

Tectona grandis

kobi-dok

Brassica oleracea

kohlrabi

Brassica oleracea

kokko

Albizia lebbeck

kone-line

Cordyline fruticosa

kon-kado

Abelmoschus moschatus

kon-thabye

Syzygium nervosum

kosot-lot

Butea superba

koyan-gyi

Crinum asiaticum

kratom

Mitragyna speciosa

krek

Mangifera indica

kroik

Bombax ceiba

kruk

Mangifera indica

ku-hlu

Phyllanthus emblica

ku-ku

Smilax guianensis

kum-bomb-kroke

Apium graveolens

kun

Euphorbia antiquorum

Piper betle

kun-kado

Kaempferia elegans

kun-linne

Cordyline fruticosa

kunsa-gamon

Alpinia galanga

kwa-nyo

Thunbergia erecta

kway

Dioscorea bulbifera

kway-tauk nwai

Dregea volubilis

kwe

Markhamia stipulata

kwet

Limonia acidissima

kyabahon

Flemingia chappar

kyahin

Ipomoea alba

kya-hpetgyi

Leea macrophylla

kyakat-wa

Bambusa bambos

kyana

Xylocarpus moluccensis

kyan-hin pin

Ipomoea alba

kya-ni

Nymphaea rubra

kya-sha

Boehmeria nivea

kya-su

Terminalia citrina

kyate-hman

Eclipta prostrata

kyat-nan

Xylocarpus moluccensis

kyauk-hkwe-pin

Evolvulus alsinoides

kyauk-pha-yon

Benincasa hispida

kyauk-tinyu

Taxus baccata

kyaung shar

Oroxylum indicum

kyaungban-gyi

Vitex negundo

kyaung-migo

Buddleja asiatica

kyaung-pan

Vitex trifolia

kyaung-se-pin

Acalypha indica

kyaung-yo-thay pin

Acalypha indica

kyaung-yo-the

Acalypha indica

kydia

Kydia calycina

kyee-arh pin

Trichosanthes tricuspidata

kyeik

Coix lacryma-jobi

kyeik-hman

Eclipta prostrata

kyet-gale

Melastoma malabathricum

kyet-hinga

Momordica charantia

kyet-hin-kha

Momordica charantia

kyet-hsu yoe-ni

Ricinus communis

kyet-hsu

Ricinus communis

kyet-kadut

Ficus benjamina

kyet-kadut

Ficus semicordata

kyet-ma-oak

Ardisia humilis

kyet-maok

Ardisia humilis

kyet-mauk

Celosia argentea

kyetmauk

Litchi chinensis

kyet-mauk-pyan

Achyranthes aspera

kyet-mauk-sue-pyan

Achyranthes aspera

kyetsi-gyi

Jatropha curcas

kyetsu

Ricinus communis

kyet-su-gyi

Jatropha curcas

kyetsu-kanako

Jatropha gossypiifolia

kyet-tayaw

Grewia hirsuta

kyet-tha-hin

Phyllanthus niruri

kyet-thun hpyu

Allium sativum

kyet-thun-ni oo-gyi

Allium cepa

kyetyo

Premna mollissima

kyetyo-po

Flacourtia jangomas

kyi

Barringtonia acutangula

kyibaung

Viscum cruciatum

kyi-kan-hnok-thi

Thunbergia laurifolia

kyi-ni

Barringtonia acutangula

kyini-nwe

Thunbergia laurifolia

kyom par

Magnolia champaca

kyu

Arundo donax

Phragmites karka

kyu-a

Phragmites karka

kyu-kaing

Phragmites karka

kyu-ma

Arundo donax

kyun

Tectona grandis

kyun-nalin

Callicarpa macrophylla

Premna mollissima

kyun-pin

Tectona grandis

kyu-wa-kaing

Phragmites karka

kywai-kyaung min hsay

Euphorbia hirta

kywai-kyaung min thay

Euphorbia hirta

kyway-u

Dioscorea pentaphylla

kywe-ma-gyo-lein

Stereospermum colais

kywe-tho

Bischofia javanica

kywe-thwe

Premna serratifolia

kywet-nabaung

Cissampelos pareira

kywe-yan-nge

Volkameria inermis

labanru

Spatholobus parviflorus

lablab bean

Lablab purpureus

lac tree

Schleichera oleosa

lacow-sacopf

Zingiber officinale

lady’s finger

Abelmoschus esculentus

lagat

Ficus religiosa

lagoe-htaneg

Zingiber officinale

lahkylk

Callicarpa macrophylla

lamai

Ficus semicordata

lambsquarters

Chenopodium album

lamtoro

Leucaena leucocephala

la-mung

Mangifera indica

landrina

Spermacoce hispida

lan-salat

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

lan-tama

Polyalthia longifolia

lantana

Lantana × aculeata

laran

Magnolia champaca

laran

Neolamarckia cadamba

lash-awng

Neolamarckia cadamba

lashen

Boehmeria nivea

lashi

Tabernaemontana divaricate

latang

Lannea coromandelica

latloot

Morinda angustifolia

latsai

Toona sureni

lauk-thay

Tadehagi triquetrum

laukya

Schima wallichii

laukya-byu

Schima wallichii

laupe

Lannea coromandelica

laurel

Ficus benjamina

laurel clock vine

Thunbergia laurifolia

laurel-leaved clockvine

Thunbergia laurifolia

laurel-leaved thunbergia

Thunbergia laurifolia

laurel-wood

Calophyllum inophyllum

lawihkri-shalwai

Citrus aurantiifolia

lay-hnyin

Syzygium aromaticum

lay-naryi pan

Mirabilis jalapa

leaf of life

Bryophyllum pinnatum

leea

Leea macrophylla

leechee

Litchi chinensis

lee-ko-kee

Memecylon edule

Leichhardt-pine

Nauclea orientalis

leik tha-shwe war

Barleria prionitis

leik-hsu shwe

Barleria prionitis

leik-su-ywe

Barleria prionitis

lein-maw

Citrus × aurantium

lelu

Mussaenda macrophylla

le-moh-pin

Ceiba pentandra

lemon

Citrus limon

lemon grass

Cymbopogon citratus

le-padauk

Monochoria vaginalis

le-padu

Hygrophila auriculata

lè-seik-shin

Crateva religiosa

le-seik-shin

Quassia indica

lesser cardamon

Elettaria cardamomum

lesser galangal

Alpinia officinarum

letpan

Bombax ceiba

letpan-ga

Alstonia scholaris

let-pau

Bombax ceiba

lettok-thein

Wrightia arborea

leucaena

Leucaena leucocephala

lewah

Ceiba pentandra

liane savon

Gouania leptostachya

licorice weed

Scoparia dulcis

life plant

Bryophyllum pinnatum

lilac tasselflower

Emilia sonchifolia

lime

Citrus aurantiifolia

linda-pabyin

Melastoma malabathricum

lin-lay

Acorus calamus

lin-ne

Acorus calamus

linseed

Linum usitatissimum

linwheel flower

Tabernaemontana divaricate

lipstick-tree

Bixa orellana

litchi

Litchi chinensis

litchi nut

Litchi chinensis

little hogweed

Portulaca oleracea

little ironweed

Cyanthillium cinereum

lolly fruit

Sandoricum koetjape

long zedoary

Curcuma zedoaria

loosestrife

Woodfordia fruticosa

lovage

Trachyspermum ammi

love-in-a-mist

Passiflora foetida

low shoebutton

Ardisia humilis

lubia bean

Lablab purpureus

lucky nut

Cascabela thevetia

luffa

Luffa cylindrica

lulin-gyaw

Cinnamomum bejolghota

lun-tha

Benincasa hispida

lychee

Litchi chinensis

mace

Myristica fragrans

machit oo

Fritillaria cirrhosa

ma-chyangai

Cratoxylum formosum

machyit

Fritillaria cirrhosa

mad apple

Datura stramonium

Madagascar periwinkle

Catharanthus roseus

madaw

Garcinia xanthochymus

madras wormwood

Grangea maderaspatana

magan

Kydia calycina

magan-kaja

Kydia calycina

magap

Kydia calycina

magwinapa

Pterospermum acerifolium

magyeng

Tamarindus indica

ma-gyi

Tamarindus indica

magyi-bauk

Sapindus saponaria

mahaga-kyansit

Persicaria pulchra

maha-gar-kyan-sit

Persicaria chinensis

maha-hlega-byu

Bauhinia acuminata

maha-hlega-byu

Bauhinia purpurea

maha-hlega-ni

Bauhinia purpurea

mahahlega-phyu

Bauhinia acuminata

mahkaw

Ziziphus jujuba

ma-hlwa

Markhamia stipulata

mahonia

Berberis nepalensis

mahuya-pein

Colocasia antiquorum

maiaw

Arundo donax

mai-aw-awn

Arundo donax

mai-awza

Annona squamosa

mai-bau

Alnus nepalensis

mai-chek

Adenanthera pavonina

mai-hen

Terminalia bellirica

mai-hkai

Salix tetrasperma

mai-hkam

Lannea coromandelica

mai-hkang

Croton tiglium

mai-hkao

Schleichera oleosa

mai-hkao-long

Holarrhena pubescens

mai-hkwai

Streblus asper

mai-hok-hpa

Terminalia tomentosa

mai-hpa

Callicarpa macrophylla

mai-hpang

Ficus semicordata

mai-hpawng-tun

Mallotus philippensis

mai-ka-aung

Semecarpus anacardium

maikao

Butea monosperma

mai-kawk

Spondias pinnata

mai-keik

Salix tetrasperma

mai-kham

Garuga pinnata

maikoa

Brugmansia arborea

mai-kokkyi

Rhus chinensis

mai-kokkyin

Rhus chinensis

mai-kong-leng

Ricinus communis

mai-kyaing

Tamarindus indica

mai-kyang

Schleichera oleosa

mai-kye

Markhamia stipulata

mai-kying-lwai

Albizia odoratissima

mai-lang

Kopsia fruticosa

Wrightia arborea

mai-long-ka-hkam

Millingtonia hortensis

mai-lum

Cassia fistula

mai-lusang

Ficus semicordata

mai-mahen

Terminalia bellirica

mai-mak-hat

Artocarpus lakoocha

mai-mak-hkam

Phyllanthus emblica

mai-mak-kawk

Spondias pinnata

mai-mak-na

Terminalia chebula

mai-man-nah

Terminalia chebula

mai-mupi

Anneslea fragrans

mai-mye-sili

Senna siamea

mai-nam-lawt

Capparis zeylanica

mai-naw

Terminalia bellirica

mai-nio

Bombax ceiba

mai-nyawng

Ficus religiosa

mai-pinngo

Careya arborea

mai-put

Callicarpa macrophylla

mai-pyit

Mayodendron igneum

mai-sak

Tectona grandis

mai-sa-lan

Tectona grandis

mai-salan

Xylia xylocarpa

mai-sat-lang

Croton persimilis

mai-saw

Gmelina arborea

maisen

Dillenia indica

mai-song

Schima wallichii

mai-son-pu

Hymenodictyon orixense

mai-sung-hkong-long

Leea macrophylla

mai-tawn

Albizia odoratissima

maiting

Mesua ferrea

maiyang

Holarrhena pubescens

mai-yang-hka-oaun

Wrightia arborea

mai-yum

Toona sureni

maize

Zea mays

makalaw

Terminalia bellirica

mak-hkam-sang-paw

Phyllanthus acidus

makhkaw-hku

Ziziphus jujuba

mak-hpung

Averrhoa carambola

mak-k yeng

Tamarindus indica

mak-kawng-tawn

Bridelia retusa

mak-kok

Ziziphus rugosa

mak-kyen

Flacourtia jangomas

mak-lang

Artocarpus heterophyllus

mak-lok-kaing

Vitex glabrata

makman-yoo

Jatropha curcas

mak-mong

Mangifera indica

mak-mong-sang-yip

Anacardium occidentale

makpa nakeching

Callicarpa macrophylla

mak-phyn

Aegle marmelos

mak-pyen-sum

Limonia acidissima

mak-sang-hpaw

Carica papaya

mak-spye

Syzygium jambos

maksun-ting

Citrus aurantiifolia

mak-tasu-long

Leea macrophylla

Malabar almond

Terminalia catappa

Malabar nut tree

Justicia adhatoda

malaka

Psidium guajava

malame

Cardiospermum halicacabum

Malay banyan

Ficus retusa

Malay bush-beech

Gmelina arborea

Malay laurel

Ficus retusa

maleinka

Oroxylum indicum

ma-monton

Mangifera indica

mamung

Mangifera indica

mana

Terminalia chebula

manglon

Tamarindus indica

mango

Mangifera indica

mangosteen

Garcinia × mangostana

mango-taukpa-tit

Strychnos potatorum

mangrai

Salix tetrasperma

mangrove

Rhizophora mucronata

maniawga

Carallia brachiata

manila tamarind

Pithecellobium dulce

mani-thanl-yet

Capparis zeylanica

mankala

Psidium guajava

mansi

Carica papaya

maranta

Maranta arundinacea

margosa

Azadirachta indica

marigold

Tagetes erecta

marihuana

Cannabis sativa

markingnut tree

Semecarpus anacardium

marsh herb

Enydra fluctuans

marsh parsley

Apium graveolens

marvel of Peru

Mirabilis jalapa

masa

Schima wallichii

mashawt pin

Euonymus kachinensis

mataran tea

Senna auriculata

mat-lay

Ipomoea hederifolia

ma-tu-pin

Elephantopus scaber

ma-u

Nauclea orientalis

Neolamarckia cadamba

ma-u-gyi

Nauclea orientalis

ma-u-kadon

Nauclea orientalis

maula

Spatholobus parviflorus

ma-u-let-tan-she

Neolamarckia cadamba

maulu

Spatholobus parviflorus

mau-phyu

Neolamarckia cadamba

mawk

Magnolia champaca

mawk nang-nang

Combretum indicum

mawk-hkam-long

Cascabela thevetia

mawk-kham

Indigofera cassioides

mawk-manu

Hibiscus schizopetalus

mawkmnae

Hibiscus schizopetalus

mawk-nawn-hkam

Acacia farnesiana

mawk-sam-ka

Plumeria rubra

mawk-sam-pailong

Plumeria rubra

mawrite nawa

Piper nigrum

mawsanku

Santalum album

mayauklok-ni

Artocarpus lakoocha

mayo

Calotropis gigantea

mayoe

Calotropis procera

mayu-de

Markhamia stipulata

maza

Cinnamomum bejolghota

me-byaung

Memecylon edule

meegyaung-kun-hpat

Hygrophila phlomoides

meet

Curcuma longa

meik-kye

Albizia odoratissima

meik-mahot

Artocarpus lakoocha

meiksong

Schima wallichii

meik-tha-lin

Zingiber montanum

meiktun

Anneslea fragrans

mejari

Senna siamea

melastoma

Melastoma malabathricum

men-khareek-leck-chuck

Aloe vera

merokwa

Terminalia tomentosa

metal seed

Senna tora

Mexican lime

Citrus aurantiifolia

Mexican petunia

Strobilanthes auriculatus

Mexican prickly poppy

Argemone mexicana

Mexican tea

Dysphania ambrosioides

me-yaing

Tephrosia purpurea

mezali

Senna siamea

mezali-gyi

Senna alata

miat

Memecylon edule

michelia

Magnolia champaca

mickyat

Kydia calycina

microcos

Grewia nervosa

mi-gwin-gamone

Tradescantia spathacea

migyaung-kunbat

Hygrophila phlomoides

Linum usitatissimum

mi-gyaung-nwe

Millettia pachycarpa

milk weed

Euphorbia hirta

milkhedge

Euphorbia antiquorum

millet

Cymbopogon jwarancusa

millettia

Millettia pachycarpa

mimosa

Mimosa pudica

mi-nauk

Memecylon edule

minbaw

Caryota mitis

mingut

Garcinia × mangostana

mistletoe

Viscum cruciatum

moi

Lannea coromandelica

moko-lanma

Tadehagi triquetrum

momakha

Salix tetrasperma

mondaing

Cycas rumphii

monia

Lannea coromandelica

monkey nut

Arachis hypogaea

monkey-jack

Artocarpus lakoocha

mon-la-ni

Daucus carota

moon flower

Ipomoea alba

moonbeam

Tabernaemontana divaricate

moonflower

Datura stramonium

moot maiboa

Cardiospermum halicacabum

morinda

Morinda angustifolia

morning glory

Convolvulus arvensis

Moses in a cradle

Tradescantia spathacea

moulmein cedar

Toona sureni

mountain ebony

Diospyros malabarica

Mousa nettle

Urtica parviflora

mung-dung

Artocarpus heterophyllus

mung-ting

Acacia catechu

munjeet

Rubia cordifolia

musk mallow

Abelmoschus moschatus

mussaenda

Mussaenda macrophylla

mussoorie berry

Coriaria nepalensis

mway-ma-naing

Abroma augustum

mway-say

Abroma augustum

mway-seik-phay-pin

Abroma augustum

mwet-kang

Symplocos racemosa

myat-ya

Grewia nervosa

myauk-laung

Artocarpus lakoocha

myauk-le-sik

Aglaia cucullata

myauk-lok

Artocarpus lakoocha

myauk-seik

Holoptelea integrifolia

myauk-zi

Ziziphus rugosa

mya-yar

Grewia nervosa

myay-byit

Portulaca oleracea

myay-pe

Arachis hypogaea

myay-pe-naw-nam

Senna tora

mye-mu-se

Cratoxylum formosum

myet-hmwe

Cymbopogon nardus

myet-hna-pan

Pavetta indica

myet-htauk

Portulaca oleracea

myet-lay-gwa

Dactyloctenium aegyptium

myet-na-myin-gyin

Pavetta indica

myetpye

Melastoma malabathricum

myet-sek

Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile

myinga

Cynometra ramiflora

myin-gaung-nayaung

Celastrus paniculatus

myin-gondaing

Celastrus paniculatus

myin-hkwa

Centella asiatica

myin-kahpan

Grewia nervosa

myin-khwar pin

Centella asiatica

myin-lauk-yaung

Celastrus paniculatus

myitzu pan pin

Mirabilis jalapa

myrobalan

Phyllanthus emblica

Terminalia bellirica

Terminalia chebula

myu

Chenopodium album

my-yar-gyi

Justicia adhatoda

nabe

Lannea coromandelica

nabu-nwe

Vallaris solanacea

nadaung-ban

Lantana × aculeata

nagbala

Sida spinosa

nagi camphor

Blumea balsamifera

nakzik

Cinnamomum bejolghota

na-lin-gyaw

Cinnamomum bejolghota

nam ya-hai-awn

Mimosa pudica

namchying

Curcuma longa

nana cane

Arundo donax

nanat-gyi

Agave sisalana

na-nat-shaw

Agave sisalana

nang-mu

Combretum indicum

nan-lon-kyaing

Acacia farnesiana

nannan

Coriandrum sativum

nantayok

Altingia excelsa

nanttha hpyu

Santalum album

nanwin

Curcuma longa

nanwinga

Curcuma comosa

natal plum

Carissa spinarum

natha hpyu

Santalum album

naukpo

Achyranthes aspera

nawnam

Senna italica

naywe

Flacourtia jangomas

nbau

Alnus nepalensis

ndung

Artocarpus heterophyllus

needle wood

Schima wallichii

neem

Azadirachta indica

neepa bark

Quassia indica

nee-par hsay-pin

Morinda coreia

nehle

Cullen corylifolium

new-ni

Celastrus paniculatus

new-nyo

Thunbergia laurifolia

nga-be

Abroma augustum

nga-chat-wa

Bambusa bambos

ngal-hjyang

Anneslea fragrans

ngapi nut

Archidendron jiringa

ngasee

Glycine max

ngayan-padu

Rotheca incisa

ngayant patu

Clerodendrum indicum

ngayok

Capsicum annuum

ngayoke kha

Andrographis paniculata

ngayoke-kaung

Piper nigrum

nga-yok-kaung

Piper longum

ngu

Cassia fistula

ngu pin

Cassia fistula

ngusat

Senna tora

ngu-shwe

Cassia fistula

ngushwe-ama

Cassia fistula

nhtau-ru

Millettia pachycarpa

nibase

Morinda citrifolia

nicandra

Nicandra physalodes

night jasmine

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

ning-bau

Alnus nepalensis

nle-prangkau

Symplocos racemosa

nlung

Morinda angustifolia

nodding smartweed

Persicaria pulchra

noni

Morinda citrifolia

notch-seeded buckwheat

Fagopyrum esculentum

nutgall tree

Rhus chinensis

nutmeg

Myristica fragrans

nutmeg flower

Nigella sativa

nu-wah

Gossypium barbadense

nwai-pe

Lablab purpureus

nwamni-than-lyet

Capparis zeylanica

nwar myay yinn

Cyperus scariosus

nwar-mee-kat

Urena lobata

nwei thargi

Nerium oleander

nwe-kazun-phyu

Ipomoea alba

nwe-nathan-gwin

Hiptage benghalensis

nwe-ni

Spatholobus parviflorus

nya

Acacia catechu

nyagyi

Morinda citrifolia

nyaung bokdahae

Ficus religiosa

nyaung-bawdi

Ficus religiosa

nyaung-lun

Ficus benjamina

nyaung-ok

Ficus retusa

nyaung-phyu

Ficus rumphii

nyaung-thabye

Ficus benjamina

nyaung-ye-o-pan

Melastoma malabathricum

nygayan-padu

Clerodendrum indicum

o-dein

Kleinhovia hospita

oilgrass

Cymbopogon jwarancusa

okhne

Streblus asper

okshit

Aegle marmelos

olax

Olax scandens

oleander

Nerium oleander

oleander-leaved euphorbia

Euphorbia neriifolia

on-hnye

Aerva javanica

onion

Allium cepa

opposite-leaf drysophylia

Colebrookea oppositifolia

ortie

Urtica dioica

Otaheite gooseberry

Phyllanthus acidus

oval-leaf monochoria

Monochoria vaginalis

oval-leaf pondweed

Monochoria vaginalis

oyster plant

Tradescantia spathacea

Pacific maple

Aglaia cucullata

padaing

Brugmansia suaveolens

Datura metel

pa-daing-byu

Datura metel

pa-daing-khata

Datura metel

padaing-khat-ta

Datura stramonium

pa-daing-ni

Datura metel

padaing-nyo

Datura stramonium

padat-nygan

Artabotrys hexapetalus

padegaw-gale

Alpinia officinarum

padei-kaw gyi

Alpinia galanga

padei-kaw lay

Alpinia officinarum

pa-deing-ngo

Exacum tetragonum

padri

Stereospermum chelonoides

pagoda tree

Plumeria rubra

pahi

Tectona grandis

paiksan

Linum usitatissimum

palan

Bauhinia acuminata

palannwe

Mallotus philippensis

palan-taunghmwe

Cheilocostus speciosus

pale smartweed

Persicaria pulchra

pale-ban

Sambucus javanica

panameikli

Vitex glabrata

panga

Terminalia chebula

panicled peristrophe

Peristrophe bicalyculata

pan-le

Woodfordia fruticosa

pan-letwa

Phyllodium pulchellum

pan-ma

Anneslea fragrans

Schima wallichii

pa-noh

Artocarpus heterophyllus

panswe

Woodfordia fruticosa

pan-swe-le

Hibiscus schizopetalus

pan-thawka

Ixora coccinea

panwe

Artocarpus heterophyllus

pan-ye-sut-nwe

Thunbergia laurifolia

pan-zayeik

Ixora coccinea

papaw

Carica papaya

papaya

Carica papaya

pashu-phet-wun

Kleinhovia hospita

pasture brake

Pteridium aquilinum

patana oak

Careya arborea

patchouli

Pogostemon cablin

pattagyi

Woodfordia fruticosa

pauk-kyn

Markhamia stipulata

pauk-new

Butea superba

pauk-nwe

Spatholobus parviflorus

pauk-pan-byu

Sesbania grandiflora

paukpin

Butea monosperma

paung

Terminalia tomentosa

paung-thaung

Strobilanthes auriculatus

pawpan

Butea monosperma

pawpaw

Carica papaya

paw-tohkaw

Butea superba

pa-yan-na-war

Boerhavia diffusa

Commicarpus chinensis

payaung-pan

Cascabela thevetia

payoke-aye

Mentha arvensis

payoke-pin

Cinnamomum camphora

payon-ama

Rhizophora mucronata

payuk

Cinnamomum camphora

pazun-sar

Alternanthera sessilis

pazun-za

Alternanthera sessilis

peanut

Arachis hypogaea

pebok

Callicarpa macrophylla

pe-bok

Glycine max

pe-bok-new

Paederia foetida

pe-dalet

Canavalia ensiformis

pe-dama

Canavalia ensiformis

peepthong

Mayodendron igneum

peik-chin

Piper longum

peik-thingat

Senna auriculata

pein

Colocasia antiquorum

pein-gya

Pothos scandens

peinne

Artocarpus heterophyllus

pein-u

Colocasia antiquorum

pe-nauk-ni

Clitoria ternatea

pe-ngapi

Glycine max

periwinkle

Catharanthus roseus

Peruvian winter cherry

Physalis peruviana

Peruvian yellow oleander

Cascabela thevetia

petari

Mallotus nudiflorus

petya

Girardinia diversifolia

petya-gyi

Girardinia diversifolia

phalsa

Grewia asiatica

phan-kha

Terminalia chebula

phat-kyi

Coriandrum sativum

phat-swon-pan

Hibiscus sabdariffa

phet-wun-ni

Kydia calycina

phon-ma-thein

Blumea balsamifera

physic nut

Jatropha curcas

physic nut

Jatropha gossypiifolia

physic nut

Jatropha multifida

pickerel weed

Monochoria vaginalis

pigweed

Amaranthus spinosus

Chenopodium album

pi-khum

Gouania leptostachya

pin-gu-hteik-peik

Leucas cephalotes

pinle-kabwe

Casuarina equisetifolia

pinle-kazun

Ipomoea pes-caprae

pinle-kyauk-pan

Volkameria inermis

pinle-ohn

Xylocarpus moluccensis

pinle-on

Xylocarpus moluccensis

pinle-tinyu

Casuarina equisetifolia

pin-sein hmway

Ocimum americanum

pin-sein

Ocimum americanum

pin-sein-net

Ocimum tenuiflorum

pkhay

Xylia xylocarpa

plantain

Plantago major

po-gaungsa

Bischofia javanica

poison bulb

Crinum asiaticum

poma

Lannea coromandelica

pomegranate

Punica granatum

ponenyet

Calophyllum inophyllum

pon-na-yeik

Ixora chinensis

Ixora coccinea

ponnayeik

Pavetta indica

pon-nyet

Anneslea fragrans

popee

Urena lobata

pora-mat

Benincasa hispida

porcupine flower

Barleria prionitis

pot

Cannabis sativa

potato yam

Dioscorea bulbifera

po-thi-din

Mallotus philippensis

pothos

Pothos scandens

praing

Xylia xylocarpa

prairie turnip

Cullen corylifolium

pran

Xylia xylocarpa

prang-gadawn

Rotheca serrata

prickly chaff

Achyranthes aspera

prickly fanpetals

Sida spinosa

prickly poppy

Argemone mexicana

pride of Barbados

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

pride of Burma

Amherstia nobilis

prince’s feather

Amaranthus cruentus

prung

Nauclea orientalis

Neolamarckia cadamba

prway

Xylia xylocarpa

Piper betle

pudding pipe tree

Cassia fistula

puneala plum

Flacourtia jangomas

purging cassia

Cassia fistula

purging nut

Jatropha curcas

purple allamanda

Thunbergia laurifolia

purple amaranthus

Amaranthus cruentus

purple foxglove

Digitalis purpurea

purple-flowered resurection lily

Kaempferia elegans

purslane

Portulaca oleracea

pursley

Portulaca oleracea

pusi-nan

Mentha arvensis

putsa-u

Dioscorea bulbifera

put-sa-u

Dioscorea pentaphylla

puzzlenut tree

Xylocarpus moluccensis

pwe-gaing

Senna alexandrina

pwekonclaw

Mucuna pruriens

pwesay-mezali

Senna alata

pwint-tu-ywet-tu

Mussaenda macrophylla

pya

Symplocos racemosa

pyauk-seik

Holoptelea integrifolia

pyaung-bu

Zea mays

pyiban-nyo

Senna sulfurea

pyidban-shwe

Senna sulfurea

pyin

Xylia xylocarpa

pyin-daw-thein

Clausena excavata

pyinkado

Xylia xylocarpa

pyinma-ywetthey

Lagerstroemia speciosa

pyrethrum

Tanacetum cinerariifolium

pyu

Rhizophora mucronata

quassia wood

Picrasma javanica

Queen Anne’s lace

Daucus carota

queen of flowering trees

Amherstia nobilis

queen’s crape myrtle

Lagerstroemia speciosa

Queensland asthma herb

Euphorbia hirta

Queesland arrowroot

Canna indica

Mucuna pruriens

rabbit greens

Ipomoea aquatica

rai baitine

Sinapis alba

rai jamun

Syzygium nervosum

ramie

Boehmeria nivea

Rangoon creeper

Combretum indicum

Quassia indica

ranjneh hnah

Centella asiatica

red amaranthus

Amaranthus cruentus

red bean vine

Abrus precatorius

red cedar

Toona sureni

red cottontree

Bombax ceiba

red milkweed

Asclepias curassavica

red morning-glory

Ipomoea hederifolia

red pepper

Capsicum annuum

red plumeria

Plumeria rubra

red sandalwood

Adenanthera pavonina

red santol

Sandoricum koetjape

red sarsaparilla

Ichnocarpus frutescens

red silk-cotton

Bombax ceiba

red tasselflower

Emilia sonchifolia

red-fruit passionflower

Passiflora foetida

red-root

Cannabis sativa

resurection lily

Kaempferia elegans

ribwort

Plantago major

rimil-beer

Olax scandens

ringworm cassia

Senna alata

ringworm shrub

Senna alata

rohituka

Aphanamixis polystachya

Roman coriander

Nigella sativa

rosary pea

Abrus precatorius

rose apple

Syzygium jambos

rose of China

Hibiscus schizopetalus

rose of Sharon

Nerium oleander

rosebay

Holarrhena pubescens

rosy leadwort

Plumbago indica

round zedoary

Curcuma zedoaria

royal poinciana

Delonix regia

rozelle

Hibiscus sabdariffa

rubanru

Spatholobus parviflorus

rubber tree

Schefflera venulosa

Rumphf’s fig tree

Ficus rumphii

running-pop

Passiflora foetida

sabalin-hmwe

Cymbopogon nardus

sabe-hmwe-sok

Jasminum multiflorum

sacred basil

Ocimum tenuiflorum

sacred fig tree

Ficus religiosa

sacred garlic pear

Crateva religiosa

safflower

Carthamus tinctorius

sagale-amauk

Premna amplectens

saga-sein

Cananga odorata

sage

Salvia officinalis

sagyaw

Mangifera indica

sahkao

Melastoma malabathricum

saingnan

Strobilanthes auriculatus

saka-wah

Magnolia champaca

sakina

Indigofera cassioides

sam lung

Magnolia champaca

sameik

Anethum graveolens

sammankaw

Ziziphus rugosa

samon nyo

Anethum graveolens

samone hpyu

Trachyspermum ammi

samon-net

Nigella sativa

samon-nwe

Momordica cochinchinensis

samon-saba

Foeniculum vulgare

samon-sabar

Foeniculum vulgare

samut

Apium graveolens

sandakoo

Santalum album

sandalwood

Santalum album

sangawn-gmawt

Careya arborea

sang-hpaw

Carica papaya

sani kamat

Asparagus officinalis

san-phak

Limonia acidissima

sansph-ka

Limonia acidissima

santagu

Santalum album

santal

Sandoricum koetjape

santol

Sandoricum koetjape

sanut-khar

Limonia acidissima

sa-nwin

Curcuma longa

Curcuma zedoaria

sanwinga

Curcuma comosa

sanwin-yaing

Curcuma comosa

sapalin

Cymbopogon citratus

sapistan

Cordia myxa

sapodilla

Manilkara zapota

sariva

Ichnocarpus frutescens

sarsaparilla

Ichnocarpus frutescens

sa-thange-ohnauk

Cratoxylum formosum

saung-chan

Capparis flavicans

saung-daw-ku

Verbena officinalis

saungkyan

Capparis flavicans

savannah fern

Dicranopteris linearis

saydan-kya

Acalypha wilkesiana

say-my

Dysphania ambrosioides

sayo pin

Piper cubeba

scarlet ixora

Ixora coccinea

scarlet leadwort

Plumbago indica

scarlet wisteria tree

Sesbania grandiflora

schima

Schima wallichii

scuffy pea

Cullen corylifolium

sea holly

Acanthus ilicifolius

Eryngium caeruleum

sea island cotton

Gossypium barbadense

Sebastian tree

Cordia dichotoma

se-baung-gyan

Pavetta indica

Sebesten plum

Cordia myxa

sega-gyi

Andrographis paniculata

se-gyauk

Cannabis sativa

seik-chi

Bridelia retusa

seikchi-bo

Bridelia retusa

seik-nan

Clausena excavata

seiknan-gyi

Premna mollissima

seik-palu

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

seinban

Delonix regia

seinnaban

Lantana × aculeata

sein-pan-gale

Caesalpinia pulcherrima

sein-takyu

Tecoma stans

se-kalon

Martynia annua

se-khar-gyi

Andrographis paniculata

sekku-pan

Bougainvillea spectabilis

se-laik-pya

Flemingia chappar

se-laik-pya

Flemingia strobilifera

se-leik-pya

Phyllodium pulchellum

selu

Cordia myxa

semakhan

Jatropha multifida

semein

Millettia pachycarpa

sensitive plant

Mimosa pudica

sentol

Sandoricum koetjape

sentul

Sandoricum koetjape

serpent wood

Rauvolfia serpentina

sesame

Sesamum indicum

sessile joyweed

Alternanthera sessilis

sethnayathi

Cascabela thevetia

set-hnit-ya-thi

Cascabela thevetia

setkadon

Mallotus nudiflorus

set-kalwe

Phyllanthus emblica

set-thalwe

Phyllanthus emblica

Seville orange

Citrus × aurantium

sha

Acacia catechu

shabyu

Phyllanthus emblica

shadwe

Ardisia humilis

shagan changgan

Butea monosperma

shaggy button weed

Spermacoce hispida

shagyaw

Mangifera indica

shaji

Acacia catechu

shakau

Allium cepa

shame weed

Mimosa pudica

shame

Melastoma malabathricum

shan camphor

Blumea balsamifera

shang hap-wsi

Carica papaya

shanghpaw

Carica papaya

shan-kazaw

Senna italica

shapawing

Ricinus communis

shari-mam

Fagopyrum esculentum

shauk

Citrus limon

shauk-waing

Citrus limon

sha-zaung-let-pat

Aloe vera

shazaung-myin-na

Euphorbia neriifolia

shewewa-pan

Allamanda cathartica

shinasoo

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

shitkale

Anacardium occidentale

shoe flower

Hibiscus schizopetalus

shoo-fly plant

Nicandra physalodes

shrub-vinca

Kopsia fruticosa

shwedagon

Asclepias curassavica

shwe-gu-than-hlet

Tadehagi triquetrum

shwe-new

Cuscuta reflexa

shwe-nwe-pin

Cuscuta reflexa

shwe-pan-new

Allamanda cathartica

Siamese cassia

Senna siamea

Siamese rough bush

Streblus asper

siamweed

Chromolaena odorata

si-cho

Orthosiphon aristatus

sicklepod

Senna tora

sigesbeckia

Sigesbeckia orientalis

sigyi

Callicarpa macrophylla

silk-cottontree

Bombax ceiba

Ceiba pentandra

silky wormwood

Artemisia dracunculus

silver cock’s comb

Celosia argentea

simal

Bombax ceiba

sin-che

Elephantopus scaber

sindon-ma-nwe

Tinospora cordifolia

sin-gwe

Stereospermum colais

sin-hna-maung

Heliotropium indicum

sin-kayan

Solanum melongena

sin-let-maung

Heliotropium indicum

sinna

Pterospermum acerifolium

sin-petya

Girardinia diversifolia

sinyok

Garuga pinnata

sisal

Agave sisalana

sisal hemp

Agave sisalana

siyo-kyetsu

Jatropha curcas

skunk vine

Paederia foetida

slender dwarf morning-glory

Evolvulus alsinoides

slow match tree

Careya arborea

small fennel

Nigella sativa

small-leaved rubber plant

Ficus benjamina

smartweed

Persicaria pulchra

smooth chastetree

Vitex glabrata

smooth loofah

Luffa cylindrica

smooth senna

Senna sulfurea

snow bush

Aerva javanica

soap pod

Acacia concinna

soapberry

Sapindus saponaria

soapnut

Sapindus saponaria

soft elephant’s-foot

Elephantopus scaber

soft hemp

Cannabis sativa

soja bean

Glycine max

sok

Senna alata

soldier-weed

Amaranthus spinosus

sonpabataing

Plumeria rubra

sorrel

Hibiscus sabdariffa

sorrowless tree

Saraca indica

sort-htmaine

Moringa oleifera

sot lapoot

Acacia concinna

sot-cawee-katun

Momordica charantia

sot-crin

Syzygium jambos

sot-gren-itg

Oroxylum indicum

sot-keen

Mimusops elengi

sot-maroat

Annona squamosa

sot-parite-sanut

Citrus aurantiifolia

sot-talwe

Phyllanthus emblica

sour orange

Citrus × aurantium

southernblue gum

Eucalyptus globulus

soy bean

Glycine max

soya bean

Glycine max

Spanish cane

Arundo donax

Spanish cherry

Mimusops elengi

speedwell

Evolvulus alsinoides

spiderflower

Cleome gynandra

spiderwisp

Cleome gynandra

spiny amaranthus

Amaranthus cruentus

Amaranthus spinosus

spiny bamboo

Bambusa bambos

spiny bitter-cucumber

Momordica cochinchinensis

spiny bittergourd

Momordica cochinchinensis

spiny pigweed

Amaranthus spinosus

sponge gourd

Luffa cylindrica

sponge-tree

Acacia farnesiana

spreading hogweed

Boerhavia diffusa

Commicarpus chinensis

star flower tree

Mimusops elengi

star gooseberry

Phyllanthus acidus

star ipomoea

Ipomoea hederifolia

starleaf

Schefflera venulosa

stinging nettle

Urtica dioica

stink vine

Paederia foetida

stinkwort

Datura stramonium

stinky opal berry

Paederia foetida

stramonium

Datura stramonium

strong-scented pigweed

Dysphania ambrosioides

suboke-gyi

Acacia pennata

subyu

Acacia nilotica

sugar apple

Annona squamosa

suka

Passiflora foetida

sum-bawng

Hibiscus sabdariffa

sum-hkawn

Acacia concinna

sumhtung

Mayodendron igneum

sumtungh-kyeng

Mayodendron igneum

sum-tung-hpraw

Millingtonia hortensis

suntwood

Acacia nilotica

su-la-na-pha

Oldenlandia corymbosa

su-lar-na-phar

Oldenlandia corymbosa

su-padang

Hygrophila auriculata

superb lily

Gloriosa superba

surfacea

Premna amplectens

suyit

Acacia pennata

swallow-wart

Calotropis procera

swamp daisy

Eclipta prostrata

swamp morning-glory

Ipomoea aquatica

swe-daw

Bauhinia acuminata

Bauhinia purpurea

swedaw-ni

Bauhinia purpurea

sweet acacia

Acacia farnesiana

sweet flag

Acorus calamus

sweetleaf

Symplocos racemosa

sweet-scented broom

Scoparia dulcis

sweetsop

Annona squamosa

switch cane

Arundo donax

sword bean

Canavalia ensiformis

Entada phaseoloides

taagat-ta-gyi

Heynea trijuga

tabasco

Capsicum annuum

tabo

Kydia calycina

tabu

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

tabyetse

Phyllodium pulchellum

tadaing-hmwe

Artabotrys hexapetalus

taesap

Garuga pinnata

ta-gat-net

Aphanamixis polystachya

taik-pan-gyibag-flower

Clerodendrum thomsoniae

takau

Mangifera indica

tama

Azadirachta indica

tamaga

Azadirachta indica

tamarind

Tamarindus indica

tame

Syzygium cumini

Syzygium jambos

tamibaw

Caryota mitis

tamilnadia

Tamilnadia uliginosa

tanah toung

Ricinus communis

tanah-con-kamor

Plumbago zeylanica

tanah-pacow-kawaing angine

Combretum indicum

tanaung

Acacia leucophloea

ta-ner-hgaw

Coriandrum sativum

Tanner’s cassia

Senna auriculata

Tanner’s tea

Senna auriculata

tanom khapore

Butea monosperma

tanwhite

Piper longum

tanyin

Archidendron jiringa

taro

Colocasia antiquorum

tarragon

Artemisia dracunculus

tasha

Phyllanthus emblica

Tasmanian blue gum

Eucalyptus globulus

tatea

Premna amplectens

taukkyan

Terminalia tomentosa

tauk-kyant

Terminalia tomentosa

tauksha

Vitex glabrata

tauku-ywe

Cinnamomum bejolghota

taung-damin

Phyllodium pulchellum

taung-gnaw

Anneslea fragrans

taung-gwe

Lannea coromandelica

taung-kamaka

Picrasma javanica

taung-kyibaung

Viscum cruciatum

taung-magyi

Albizia odoratissima

taung-mayo

Alstonia scholaris

taung-meok

Alstonia scholaris

taung-petwun

Pterospermum acerifolium

taung-sun

Maranta arundinacea

taung-tama

Toona sureni

taung-tangyi

Premna serratifolia

taung-thanut

Cordia myxa

taung-thayet

Buchanania lancifolia

taung-zalut

Wrightia arborea

taw-bizat

Chromolaena odorata

tawbut

Luffa cylindrica

taw-hingala

Cleome gynandra

tawitho

Terminalia bellirica

taw-kalamet

Pterospermum acerifolium

taw-kanako

Jatropha gossypiifolia

taw-khan-pin

Carissa spinarum

taw-kinmon

Coccinia grandis

taw-ma-hnyo-lon

Grangea maderaspatana

taw-mevaing

Indigofera cassioides

taw-mezali

Senna siamea

tawngto-nao

Callicarpa macrophylla

taw-pilaw

Malvastrum coromandelianum

taw-sabe

Ichnocarpus frutescens

tawsabe

Jasminum multiflorum

taw-suka-ban

Passiflora foetida

taw-thabut

Momordica cochinchinensis

taw-thi-din

Mallotus philippensis

taw-wah

Abelmoschus moschatus

taw-yinma

Chukrasia tabularis

taw-zalat

Tabernaemontana divaricate

taw-zi

Ziziphus rugosa

taya

Phyllanthus emblica

tayaw

Grewia hirsuta

tayaw-ni

Kydia calycina

tayaw-nyo-nye

Gouania leptostachya

tayokenan-nan

Apium graveolens

tayoksaga-ani tayok-saga

Plumeria rubra

tayok-the

Bischofia javanica

tayok-zi

Litchi chinensis

ta-zaung

Euphorbia neriifolia

tazaung-gyi

Euphorbia antiquorum

tazaung-pyathat

Euphorbia antiquorum

Diospyros mollis

teak

Tectona grandis

tellicherry bark

Holarrhena pubescens

Terminalia chebula

thabye-kyet-chi

Syzygium cumini

thabye-phyu

Syzygium cumini

thabye-shin

Syzygium nervosum

thabyetsi-bin

Sida spinosa

thabyu

Dillenia indica

thabyu-thaby

Syzygium jambos

thabyu-thabye

Syzygium jambos

tha-dut

Ficus semicordata

thagya

Manilkara zapota

thagya-bin

Scoparia dulcis

thagya-hlandin

Tadehagi triquetrum

thagyar makike

Orthosiphon aristatus

thakabti

Schleichera oleosa

tha-khwar-thi

Cucumis sativus

thakut-pho

Stereospermum colais

thakut-po

Stereospermum colais

thale

Punica granatum

tha-min-sa-hpru-thi

Catunaregam spinosa

tha-myet

Momordica cochinchinensis

thanakha

Limonia acidissima

thanat

Cordia dichotoma

Cordia myxa

thanat-kha

Chloranthus elatior

thanat-pyit-see

Pogostemon cablin

thanbayar

Citrus aurantiifolia

than-bayo

Citrus limon

thande

Stereospermum colais

thankaungh

Terminalia chebula

than-manaing-kyauk-manaing

Alysicarpus vaginalis

than-tat

Stereospermum colais

than-tay

Stereospermum colais

than-that-gyi

Aphanamixis polystachya

thanut

Cordia dichotoma

thauk-kya

Vitex glabrata

thawka

Amherstia nobilis

Saraca indica

thawka-gyi

Amherstia nobilis

thawka-po

Saraca indica

thaya-muli

Aristolochia indica

thayet

Mangifera indica

thayet-phyu

Mangifera indica

thayet-thin-baung

Buchanania lancifolia

theban

Quassia indica

thebla

Gmelina arborea

thelaw

Careya arborea

thetyin-gyi

Croton persimilis

thi

Limonia acidissima

thiag-riang

Terminalia bellirica

thi-ha-yaza

Limonia acidissima

thiho-thayet

Anacardium occidentale

thinbauk-nanat

Agave sisalana

thinbaw

Carica papaya

thinbaw kyet-hsu

Ricinus communis

thinbaw-adalut

Maranta arundinacea

thinbaw-kanako

Jatropha gossypiifolia

thinbaw-kyetsu

Jatropha curcas

thin-baw-kyetsy

Jatropha curcas

thinbaw-letpan

Ceiba pentandra

thinbaw-ma-hnyoe

Catharanthus roseus

thinbaw-ma-hnyo-pan

Catharanthus roseus

thinbaw-ma-hnyo-pan-aphyu

Catharanthus roseus

thinbaw-mezali

Senna alata

Senna alexandrina

thin-baw-na-nat

Agave vera-cruz

thinbaw-te

Polyalthia longifolia

thinbaw-tidin

Bixa orellana

thinbaw-zalut

Kopsia fruticosa

thinbaw-zibyu

Phyllanthus acidus

thingbaung

Buchanania lancifolia

thingu-gyat

Flemingia strobilifera

thin-paung

Hibiscus vitifolius

thitcho-khaya

Mimusops elengi

thit-hmwe

Aquilaria malaccensis

thit-jaboe

Cinnamomum tamala

thit-kado

Toona sureni

thit-kyabo

Cinnamomum bejolghota

Cinnamomum verum

thit-magyi

Albizia odoratissima

thit-ni

Aglaia cucullata

Aphanamixis polystachya

thit-seint

Terminalia bellirica

thitsi-bo

Semecarpus anacardium

thitto

Sandoricum koetjape

thitya-byu

Schima wallichii

thityah

Schima wallichii

thitya-ni

Schima wallichii

thorn apple

Datura metel

Datura stramonium

thorny amaranthus

Amaranthus spinosus

threelobe false mallow

Malvastrum coromandelianum

thunge-che

Helicteres isora

thun-vong

Gmelina arborea

ti plant

Cordyline fruticosa

tick clover

Phyllodium pulchellum

Tadehagi triquetrum

tick trefoil

Phyllodium pulchellum

Tadehagi triquetrum

tiger’s claw

Martynia annua

tikayon

Mimosa pudica

tike-pan

Clerodendrum thomsoniae

tike-tot-grine

Convolvulus arvensis

tila-pup-hpi

Digitalis purpurea

tingkyut

Helicteres isora

tinnevelly senna

Senna alexandrina

tiu khon tree

Cratoxylum formosum

tnhlium

Salix tetrasperma

to-ma-awn

Mucuna pruriens

toon

Ricinus communis

touch-me-not

Mimosa pudica

tree cotton

Gossypium barbadense

tree crinum

Crinum asiaticum

tropical almond

Terminalia catappa

tropical bleeding heart

Clerodendrum thomsoniae

tropical fanleaf

Hibiscus vitifolius

tropical laurel

Ficus benjamina

tropical rose mallow

Hibiscus vitifolius

tropical white morning-glory

Ipomoea alba

tropical whiteweed

Ageratum conyzoides

true ginger

Zingiber officinale

true hemp

Cannabis sativa

true sandalwood

Santalum album

trumpet flower

Stereospermum colais

trumpet-bush

Tecoma stans

tubeflower

Clerodendrum indicum

Rotheca incisa

tumeric

Curcuma comosa

tummy wood

Careya arborea

tun-kong

Jatropha curcas

tun-paw-man

Cordia dichotoma

tun-sa-se

Acacia catechu

turkey bush

Grewia polygama

turmeric

Curcuma longa

turnsole

Heliotropium indicum

turpeth root

Ipomoea alba

twinnet

Ichnocarpus frutescens

twinnet-kado

Ichnocarpus frutescens

ulat-kam-bala

Abroma augustum

umawng

Croton persimilis

umbrella tree

Schefflera venulosa

umung

Mangifera indica

upas tree

Antiaris toxicaria

u-wa-yaing

Daucus carota

varnishtree

Semecarpus anacardium

vegetable humming-bird

Sesbania grandiflora

vegetable sponge

Luffa cylindrica

velvet bean

Mucuna pruriens

velvet leaf

Cissampelos pareira

vinca

Catharanthus roseus

wachyang

Melastoma malabathricum

wadalee-gum tree

Acacia catechu

wagangga

Melastoma malabathricum

wah

Gossypium hirsutum

Wallich milk parsely

Selinum wallichianum

wa-mayar

Litchi chinensis

wa-pasang

Syzygium jambos

wa-passan

Syzygium cumini

water cress

Enydra fluctuans

water-filter nut

Strychnos potatorum

waterspinach

Ipomoea aquatica

wa-u-bin

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

wa-u-pin

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

wax gourd

Benincasa hispida

weak horsetail

Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile

wee-ek

Premna amplectens

weeping laurel

Ficus benjamina

West Indian almond

Terminalia catappa

West Indian blackthorn

Acacia farnesiana

West Indian pea tree

Sesbania grandiflora

Westland’s rhododendron

Rhododendron moulmainense

wetkyein

Persicaria chinensis

Pteridium aquilinum

wet-myet-nyo

Cyperus scariosus

white butterfly bush

Buddleja asiatica

white cedar

Aphanamixis polystachya

white eclipta

Eclipta prostrata

white gourd

Benincasa hispida

white heads

Eclipta prostrata

white leadwort

Plumbago zeylanica

white man’s foot

Plantago major

white mustard

Sinapis alba

white pavetta

Pavetta indica

white sandalwood

Santalum album

white silk-cottontree

Ceiba pentandra

white-barked acacia

Acacia leucophloea

wild balsam apple

Momordica charantia

wild cabbage

Brassica oleracea

wild carrot

Daucus carota

wild cassia

Cinnamomum bejolghota

wild celery

Apium graveolens

Trachyspermum roxburghianum

wild cock’s comb

Celosia argentea

wild eggplant

Solanum rudepannum

wild ginger

Zingiber montanum

wild indigo

Tephrosia purpurea

wild jujube

Ziziphus rugosa

wild mango

Spondias pinnata

wild mint

Mentha arvensis

wild oil nut

Jatropha curcas

wild okra

Abelmoschus esculentus

wild portulaca

Portulaca oleracea

wild saffron

Carthamus tinctorius

wild sage

Lantana × aculeata

wild sarsaparilla

Smilax guianensis

wild snake gourd

Coccinia grandis

wild tamarind

Leucaena leucocephala

wild water-lemon

Passiflora foetida

wildhops

Flemingia strobilifera

willow

Salix tetrasperma

wine palm

Caryota mitis

wine-baing

Cymbopogon citratus

winter cherry

Cardiospermum halicacabum

winterberry

Euonymus kachinensis

wodier

Lannea coromandelica

woman’s tongue

Albizia lebbeck

wonder-tree

Ricinus communis

wood apple

Limonia acidissima

woodfordia

Woodfordia fruticosa

woolly dyeing rosebay

Wrightia arborea

woolly foxglove

Digitalis lanata

wormseed

Dysphania ambrosioides

yang-bau

Alnus nepalensis

yangmaw

Haldina cordifolia

yan-nung

Mucuna pruriens

yat

Carallia brachiata

yaung-ma-ywet

Phyllanthus niruri

ye-chaung-pan

Stachytarpheta indica

ye-hmyok

Mallotus nudiflorus

ye-ka-on

Ficus semicordata

ye-kazun

Ipomoea aquatica

ye-kyi

Barringtonia acutangula

yellow champak

Magnolia champaca

yellow crown-head

Sigesbeckia orientalis

yellow jasmine

Jasminum humile

yellow oleander

Cascabela thevetia

yellow prickly poppy

Argemone mexicana

yellow snake tree

Stereospermum colais

yellow snakeroot

Stereospermum chelonoides

yellow teak

Haldina cordifolia

yellow trumpet-bush

Tecoma stans

yellow-bells

Tecoma stans

yellow-elder

Tecoma stans

yellowtop

Senecio densiflorus

ye-magyi

Justicia adhatoda

yemane

Gmelina arborea

yema-u

Neolamarckia cadamba

ye-ma-u

Neolamarckia cadamba

ye-minga

Cynometra ramiflora

ye-mya-yar

Grewia nervosa

yene

Salix tetrasperma

yengan-bok

Diospyros malabarica

ye-padauk

Bischofia javanica

yepadon

Bischofia javanica

yerba de caballo

Elephantopus scaber

yerba de tago

Eclipta prostrata

ye-tazwet

Grangea maderaspatana

ye-thabye

Salix tetrasperma

Syzygium nervosum

ye-tha-gyi

Sesbania sesban

yetkyi

Woodfordia fruticosa

yew

Taxus baccata

yinbya

Rotheca serrata

yinbya-byu

Premna amplectens

yinbya-net

Rotheca serrata

yinma

Chukrasia tabularis

ylang-ylang

Cananga odorata

yonbade

Abelmoschus esculentus

yong

Senna sulfurea

yun-ha

Schleichera oleosa

yuzara

Chloranthus elatior

ywe

Abrus precatorius

Adenanthera pavonina

ywe-gyi

Adenanthera pavonina

ywenge

Abrus precatorius

ywe-nge

Abrus precatorius

ywe-ni

Adenanthera pavonina

ywe-nwe

Abrus precatorius

ywet-kya-pin-bauk

Bryophyllum pinnatum

za-gwe-pan

Pavetta indica

zalat

Tabernaemontana divaricate

zalat-pyu

Rhododendron moulmainense

zalat-seikya

Tabernaemontana divaricate

zalut-ni

Kopsia fruticosa

zalut-panyaung

Kopsia fruticosa

zar-date-hpo

Myristica fragrans

zar-pwint

Myristica fragrans

zaung-ya

Averrhoa carambola

zawgyi taung whay pin

Cordyline fruticosa

zawma

Cordyline fruticosa

zedoary

Curcuma zedoaria

zee-hpyu

Phyllanthus emblica

Ziziphus jujuba

zibyu

Phyllanthus emblica

zi-daw-thi

Ziziphus jujuba

zi-ganauk

Ziziphus rugosa

zi-talaing

Ziziphus rugosa

zizaung

Euphorbia neriifolia

zun-burr

Lannea coromandelica

Appendix 2

Species index

Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae)

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Abroma augustum (Malvaceae)

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acacia catechu (Fabaceae)

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae)

Acacia leucophloea (Fabaceae)

Acacia nilotica (Fabaceae)

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Acalypha wilkesiana (Euphorbiaceae)

Acanthus ilicifolius (Acanthaceae)

Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Adenanthera pavonina (Fabaceae)

Aeginetia indica (Orobanchaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Aerva javanica (Amaranthaceae)

Agave sisalana (Asparagaceae)

Agave vera-cruz (Asparagaceae)

Aglaia cucullata (Meliaceae)

Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae)

Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae)

Albizia lebbeck (Fabaceae)

Albizia odoratissima (Fabaceae)

Allamanda cathartica (Apocynaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alnus nepalensis (Betulaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Alternanthera sessilis (Amaranthaceae)

Altingia excelsa (Altingiaceae)

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Amaranthus cruentus (Amaranthaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Amherstia nobilis (Fabaceae)

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Araceae)

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Anneslea fragrans (Pentaphylacaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Antiaris toxicaria (Moraceae)

Aphanamixis polystachya (Meliaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae)

Archidendron jiringa (Fabaceae)

Ardisia humilis (Primulaceae)

Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Aristolochia tagala (Aristolochiaceae)

Artabotrys hexapetalus (Annonaceae)

Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae)

Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Artocarpus lakoocha (Moraceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Asparagus filicinus (Asparagaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae)

Avicennia officinalis (Acanthaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Bambusa bambos (Poaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Barringtonia acutangula (Lecythidaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Bauhinia purpurea (Fabaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Berberis nepalensis (Berberidaceae)

Bischofia javanica (Phyllanthaceae)

Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Boehmeria nivea (Urticaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Bombax ceiba (Malvaceae)

Bougainvillea spectabilis (Nyctaginaceae)

Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)

Bridelia retusa (Phyllanthaceae)

Brugmansia arborea (Solanaceae)

Brugmansia suaveolens (Solanaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Buddleja asiatica (Scrophulariaceae)

Buchanania lancifolia (Anacardiaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Butea superba (Fabaceae)

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae)

Callicarpa macrophylla (Lamiaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cananga odorata (Annonaceae)

Canavalia ensiformis (Fabaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae)

Capparis flavicans (Capparaceae)

Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae)

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae)

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Careya arborea (Lecythidaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Caryota mitis (Arecaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarinaceae)

Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Catunaregam spinosa (Rubiaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Celastrus paniculatus (Celastraceae)

Celosia argentea (Amaranthaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Chamaecrista pumila (Fabaceae)

Cheilocostus speciosus (Costaceae)

Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae)

Chloranthus elatior (Chloranthaceae)

Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae)

Chrozophora plicata (Euphorbiaceae)

Chukrasia tabularis (Meliaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus × aurantium (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Claoxylon indicum (Euphorbiaceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Clematis smilacifolia (Ranunculaceae)

Cleome gynandra (Cleomaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Clerodendrum infortunatum (Lamiaceae)

Clerodendrum thomsoniae (Lamiaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Colebrookea oppositifolia (Lamiaceae)

Colocasia antiquorum (Araceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Commicarpus chinensis (Nyctaginaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

Cordia myxa (Boraginaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Coriaria nepalensis (Coriariaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Cratoxylum formosum (Hypericaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae)

Cullen corylifolium (Fabaceae)

Cupressus goveniana (Cupressaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Cyanthillium cinereum (Asteraceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Cynometra ramiflora (Fabaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Poaceae)

Datura metel (Solanaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Daucus carota (Apiaceae)

Delonix regia (Fabaceae)

Dicranopteris linearis (Gleicheniaceae)

Digitalis lanata (Plantaginaceae)

Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Dimocarpus longan (Sapindaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Diospyros mollis (Ebenaceae)

Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae)

Dioscorea pentaphylla (Dioscoreaceae)

Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae)

Dracaena angustifolia (Asparagaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Dysphania ambrosioides (Amaranthaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elephantopus scaber (Asteraceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Emilia sonchifolia (Asteraceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Entada phaseoloides (Fabaceae)

Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile (Equisetaceae)

Eryngium caeruleum (Apiaceae)

Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Euphorbia antiquorum (Euphorbiaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Euphorbia neriifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

Eurycoma longifolia (Simaroubaceae)

Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae)

Exacum tetragonum (Gentianaceae)

Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae)

Ficus benjamina (Moraceae)

Ficus hispida (Moraceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Ficus retusa (Moraceae)

Ficus rumphii (Moraceae)

Ficus semicordata (Moraceae)

Flacourtia jangomas (Salicaceae)

Flemingia chappar (Fabaceae)

Flemingia strobilifera (Fabaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Garcinia × mangostana (Clusiaceae)

Garcinia xanthochymus (Clusiaceae)

Garuga pinnata (Burseraceae)

Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Glycine max (Fabaceae)

Gmelina arborea (Lamiaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Gouania leptostachya (Rhamnaceae)

Grangea maderaspatana (Asteraceae)

Grewia asiatica (Malvaceae)

Grewia hirsuta (Malvaceae)

Grewia nervosa (Malvaceae)

Grewia polygama (Malvaceae)

Haldina cordifolia (Rubiaceae)

Helicteres isora (Malvaceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Heynea trijuga (Meliaceae)

Hibiscus cannabinus (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus schizopetalus (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus vitifolius (Malvaceae)

Hiptage benghalensis (Malpighiceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Holoptelea integrifolia (Ulmaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Hydrolea zeylanica (Hydroleaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Hygrophila phlomoides (Acanthaceae)

Hymenodictyon orixense (Rubiaceae)

Ichnocarpus frutescens (Apocynaceae)

Indigofera cassioides (Fabaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea hederifolia (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Convolvulaceae)

Ixora chinensis (Rubiaceae)

Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae)

Jasminum humile (Oleaceae)

Jasminum multiflorum (Oleaceae)

Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae)

Jatropha gossypiifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

Jatropha multifida (Euphorbiaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Kaempferia elegans (Zingiberaceae)

Kleinhovia hospita (Malvaceae)

Kopsia fruticosa (Apocynaceae)

Kydia calycina (Malvaceae)

Lablab purpureus (Fabaceae)

Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae)

Lannea coromandelica (Anacardiaceae)

Lantana × aculeata (Verbenaceae)

Leea macrophylla (Vitaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Linostoma pauciflorum (Thymelaeaceae)

Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)

Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae)

Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mallotus nudiflorus (Euphorbiaceae)

Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae)

Malvastrum coromandelianum (Malvaceae)

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae)

Markhamia stipulata (Bignoniaceae)

Martynia annua (Martyniaceae)

Mayodendron igneum (Bignoniaceae)

Melaleuca cajuputi (Myrtaceae)

Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae)

Memecylon edule (Melastomataceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Millettia pachycarpa (Fabaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Mitragyna speciosa (Rubiaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Momordica cochinchinensis (Cucurbitaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Mussaenda macrophylla (Rubiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nauclea orientalis (Rubiaceae)

Neolamarckia cadamba (Rubiaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Nicandra physalodes (Solanaceae)

Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Nymphaea rubra (Nymphaeaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Olax scandens (Olacaceae)

Oldenlandia corymbosa (Rubiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Paederia foetida (Rubiaceae)

Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae)

Passiflora quadrangularis (Passifloraceae)

Pavetta indica (Rubiaceae)

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Acanthaceae)

Persicaria chinensis (Polygonaceae)

Persicaria pulchra (Polygonaceae)

Phragmites karka (Poaceae)

Phyllanthus acidus (Phyllanthaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Phyllanthus niruri (Phyllanthaceae)

Phyllodium pulchellum (Fabaceae)

Physalis peruviana (Solanaceae)

Picrasma javanica (Simaroubaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Pithecellobium dulce (Fabaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae)

Portulaca oleracea (Portulaceae)

Pothos scandens (Araceae)

Premna amplectens (Lamiaceae)

Premna mollissima (Lamiaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Prunus cerasoides (Rosaceae)

Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae)

Pteridium aquilinum (Dennstaedtiaceae)

Pterospermum acerifolium (Malvaceae)

Punica granatum (Lythraceae)

Putranjiva roxburghii (Putranjavaceae)

Quassia indica (Simaroubaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rhizophora mucronata (Rhizophoraceae)

Rhododendron moulmainense (Ericaceae)

Rhus chinensis (Anacardiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Rotheca incisa (Lamiaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Rubia cordifolia (Rubiaceae)

Salix tetrasperma (Salicaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Sambucus javanica (Adoxaceae)

Sandoricum koetjape (Meliaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae)

Saraca indica (Fabaceae)

Schefflera venulosa (Araliaceae)

Schima wallichii (Theaceae)

Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senecio densiflorus (Asteraceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Senna auriculata (Fabaceae)

Senna italica (Fabaceae)

Senna siamea (Fabaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Senna tora (Fabaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Sida spinosa (Malvaceae)

Sigesbeckia orientalis (Asteraceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Smilax aspera (Smilacaceae)

Smilax glabra (Smilacaceae)

Smilax guianensis (Smilacaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Solanum melongena (Solanaceae)

Solanum rudepannum (Solanaceae)

Spatholobus parviflorus (Fabaceae)

Spermacoce hispida (Rubiaceae)

Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae)

Stachytarpheta indica (Verbenaceae)

Stereospermum chelonoides (Bignoniaceae)

Stereospermum colais (Bignoniaceae)

Streblus asper (Moraceae)

Strobilanthes auriculatus (Acanthaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Strychnos wallichiana (Loganiaceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

Symplocos racemosa (Symplocaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae)

Syzygium nervosum (Myrtaceae)

Tabernaemontana divaricata (Apocynaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tamilnadia uliginosa (Rubiaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Taxus baccata (Taxaceae)

Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Tephrosia purpurea (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Terminalia tomentosa (Combretaceae)

Thunbergia erecta (Acanthaceae)

Thunbergia laurifolia (Acanthaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Toona sureni (Meliaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (Apiaceae)

Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Triumfetta rhomboidea (Malvaceae)

Typhonium trilobatum (Araceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Urtica dioica (Urticaceae)

Urtica parviflora (Urticaceae)

Vaccaria hispanica (Caryophyllaceae)

Vallaris solanacea (Apocynaceae)

Ventilago denticulata (Rhamnaceae)

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

Viscum cruciatum (Santalaceae)

Vitex glabrata (Lamiaceae)

Vitex negundo (Lamiaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Volkameria inermis (Lamiaceae)

Walsura pinnata (Meliaceae)

Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae)

Wrightia arborea (Apocynaceae)

Xylia xylocarpa (Fabaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium (Rutaceae)

Zea mays (Poaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber zerumbet (Zingiberaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Ziziphus rugosa (Rhamnaceae)

Appendix 3

Medicinal index

Abdominal illnesses

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Abortive

Buddleja asiatica (Scrophulariaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Pithecellobium dulce (Fabaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Abscesses

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Acne

Aerva javanica (Amaranthaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Alcoholism

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Alertness

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Analgesic

Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae)

Elephantopus scaber (Asteraceae)

Flemingia chappar (Fabaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae)

Anemia

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Anodyne

Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae)

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Poaceae)

Anthelmintic

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Asparagus filicinus (Asparagaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae)

Dicranopteris linearis (Gleicheniaceae)

Diospyros mollis (Ebenaceae)

Dysphania ambrosioides (Amaranthaceae)

Emilia sonchifolia (Asteraceae)

Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae)

Grangea maderaspatana (Asteraceae)

Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae)

Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Oldenlandia corymbosa (Rubiaceae)

Pteridium aquilinum (Dennstaedtiaceae)

Punica granatum (Lythraceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Saraca indica (Fabaceae)

Schima wallichii (Theaceae)

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

Tephrosia purpurea (Fabaceae)

Antiasthmatic

Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae)

Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae)

Brugmansia arborea (Solanaceae)

Brugmansia suaveolens (Solanaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Cullen corylifolium (Fabaceae)

Cyanthillium cinereum (Asteraceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Dicranopteris linearis (Gleicheniaceae)

Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae)

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

Pothos scandens (Araceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Antidysenteric

Antiaris toxicaria (Moraceae)

Eurycoma longifolia (Simaroubaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Antiemetic

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Antiherpetic

Cynometra ramiflora (Fabaceae)

Antihysteric

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Antiparasitic

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Antiphylogistic

Viscum cruciatum (Santalaceae)

Antipyretic

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Antiaris toxicaria (Moraceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)

Celosia argentea (Amaranthaceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Cleome gynandra (Cleomaceae)

Clerodendrum infortunatum (Lamiaceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Delonix regia (Fabaceae)

Dicranopteris linearis (Gleicheniaceae)

Elephantopus scaber (Asteraceae)

Emilia sonchifolia (Asteraceae)

Entada phaseoloides (Fabaceae)

Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)

Grangea maderaspatana (Asteraceae)

Hymenodictyon orixense (Rubiaceae)

Ichnocarpus frutescens (Apocynaceae)

Lablab purpureus (Fabaceae)

Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Nauclea orientalis (Rubiaceae)

Neolamarckia cadamba (Rubiaceae)

Nymphaea rubra (Nymphaeaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Oldenlandia corymbosa (Rubiaceae)

Polyalthia longifolia (Annonaceae)

Salix tetrasperma (Salicaceae)

Stereospermum chelonoides (Bignoniaceae)

Stereospermum colais (Bignoniaceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tephrosia purpurea (Fabaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium (Rutaceae)

Antirheumatic

Clematis smilacifolia (Ranunculaceae)

Paederia foetida (Rubiaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Antiscorbutic

Persicaria chinensis (Polygonaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae)

Antiseptic

Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae)

Bischofia javanica (Phyllanthaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae)

Colebrookea oppositifolia (Lamiaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

Tagetes erecta (Asteraceae)

Antispasmodic

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Poaceae)

Grangea maderaspatana (Asteraceae)

Lablab purpureus (Fabaceae)

Lantana × aculeata (Verbenaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Taxus baccata (Taxaceae)

Antisyphilitic

Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae)

Anxiety

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Aperient. See Laxative.

Aphrodisiac

Avicennia officinalis (Acanthaceae)

Celosia argentea (Amaranthaceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Appetite improver

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Arthritis

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ascites. See also Hydragogue.

Allamanda cathartica (Apocynaceae)

Asthma

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Datura metel (Solanaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Euphorbia neriifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Garuga pinnata (Burseraceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Volkameria inermis (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Astringent

Acacia catechu (Fabaceae)

Acacia leucophloea (Fabaceae)

Acacia nilotica (Fabaceae)

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae)

Alnus nepalensis (Betulaceae)

Aphanamixis polystachya (Meliaceae)

Artocarpus lakoocha (Moraceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Bauhinia purpurea (Fabaceae)

Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)

Bombax ceiba (Malvaceae)

Bridelia retusa (Phyllanthaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Chukrasia tabularis (Meliaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Grewia asiatica (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae)

Lannea coromandelica (Anacardiaceae)

Leea macrophylla (Vitaceae)

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

Memecylon edule (Melastomataceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Phyllodium pulchellum (Fabaceae)

Pterospermum acerifolium (Malvaceae)

Punica granatum (Lythraceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rhus chinensis (Anacardiaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Saraca indica (Fabaceae)

Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Senna auriculata (Fabaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Terminalia tomentosa (Combretaceae)

Toona sureni (Meliaceae)

Vitex glabrata (Lamiaceae)

Xylia xylocarpa (Fabaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)

Bad breath. See Halitosis.

Baldness

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Beriberi

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Bile

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Flacourtia jangomas (Salicaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Thunbergia erecta (Acanthaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Bites

-cat

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

-insect

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

-rabid dog

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

-snake

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acanthus ilicifolius (Acanthaceae)

Careya arborea (Lecythidaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Jasminum multiflorum (Oleaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Bitter

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Hiptage benghalensis (Malpighiceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

Bladder disease

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Araceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

-stones

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Bleeding

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

-ears

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

-gums

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

-in urine

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

-menstrual

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

-nosebleeds

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Bloating

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Blood disorders

Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae)

Barringtonia acutangula (Lecythidaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

-abnormal

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

-binding

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

-cleaning

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

-clotting

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

-irregulation

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-pressure

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

-purification

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Amaranthus cruentus (Amaranthaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Anneslea fragrans (Pentaphylacaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Dracaena angustifolia (Asparagaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nymphaea rubra (Nymphaeaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Boils. See also Skin disorders, Skin sores.

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Albizia lebbeck (Fabaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Senecio densiflorus (Asteraceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

-breast

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

-genital

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Bone

-broken/fractured

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Jatropha multifida (Euphorbiaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

-improvements

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Bowels

-complaints

Aristolochia tagala (Aristolochiaceae)

Woodfordia fruticosa (Lythraceae)

-disease

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

-loose bowel

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

-movements

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

-sluggish

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Brain

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Breasts

-drooping

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

-problems

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Breathing

-clear passages

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Bronchitis

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Bruises

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Bumps

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Burning sensation

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Burns

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae)

-mouth

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Cancer

-skin

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

-stomach

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

-throat

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Carminative

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Ardisia humilis (Primulaceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Zingiber zerumbet (Zingiberaceae)

Cataracts

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Catarrh

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

-bladder

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

-urinary tract

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cathartic. See also Hydragogue, Laxative, Purgative.

Allamanda cathartica (Apocynaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Cerebral Palsy

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Chest

Acacia catechu (Fabaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Chickenpox

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Childbirth

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Cratoxylum formosum (Hypericaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Momordica cochinchinensis (Cucurbitaceae)

Premna amplectens (Lamiaceae)

Premna mollissima (Lamiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Triumfetta rhomboidea (Malvaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Volkameria inermis (Lamiaceae)

Chills

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Cholagogue. See also Bile.

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Cholera

Artabotrys hexapetalus (Annonaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Chronic diseases

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Circulation

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

-problems

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-varicose

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Colds

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Colic

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Convolvulaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Rhus chinensis (Anacardiaceae)

Complexion

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Congestion

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Claoxylon indicum (Euphorbiaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

Constipation

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Contusions. See Bruises, Bumps.

Cooling

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

Coughs

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Albizia odoratissima (Fabaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Indigofera cassioides (Fabaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Cuts

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Cysts

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Deafness

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Demulcent

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Grewia asiatica (Malvaceae)

Deterioration

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Diabetes

Aeginetia indica (Orobanchaceae)

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Archidendron jiringa (Fabaceae)

Bombax ceiba (Malvaceae)

Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Ficus hispida (Moraceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae)

Putranjiva roxburghii (Putranjavaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Solanum rudepannum (Solanaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae)

Diaphoretic

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Flacourtia jangomas (Salicaceae)

Lantana × aculeata (Verbenaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Phragmites karka (Poaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Sida spinosa (Malvaceae)

Smilax aspera (Smilacaceae)

Smilax guianensis (Smilacaceae)

Diarrhea

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Barringtonia acutangula (Lecythidaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarinaceae)

Chenopodium album (Amaranthaceae)

Chukrasia tabularis (Meliaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Garcinia × mangostana (Clusiaceae)

Garcinia xanthochymus (Clusiaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Streblus asper (Moraceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Terminalia tomentosa (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Walsura pinnata (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Digestion

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Canavalia ensiformis (Fabaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus × aurantium (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Pithecellobium dulce (Fabaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Portulaca oleracea (Portulaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Diphtheria

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Disease, prevention

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Diuretic

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Agrimonia eupatoria (Rosaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Amaranthus cruentus (Amaranthaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Asparagus filicinus (Asparagaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Berberis nepalensis (Berberidaceae)

Bombax ceiba (Malvaceae)

Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

Cucumis sativus (Cucurbitaceae)

Cullen corylifolium (Fabaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Daucus carota (Apiaceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Phragmites karka (Poaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Phyllanthus niruri (Phyllanthaceae)

Physalis peruviana (Solanaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

Sambucus javanica (Adoxaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Terminalia tomentosa (Combretaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Urtica dioica (Urticaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Dizziness

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Dropsy

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Pavetta indica (Rubiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Dysentery

Albizia lebbeck (Fabaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Barringtonia acutangula (Lecythidaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarinaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Garcinia × mangostana (Clusiaceae)

Garcinia xanthochymus (Clusiaceae)

Grewia polygama (Malvaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Kaempferia elegans (Zingiberaceae)

Kleinhovia hospita (Malvaceae)

Melastoma malabathricum (Melastomataceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Mussaenda macrophylla (Rubiaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Sandoricum koetjape (Meliaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae)

Streblus asper (Moraceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tamilnadia uliginosa (Rubiaceae)

Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Walsura pinnata (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)

-male-related

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Dyspepsia

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae)

Earaches

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Ear diseases/infections

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

-buzzing

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Eczema

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Edema

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Elephantiasis

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Strychnos wallichiana (Loganiaceae)

Embrocation. See Liniment.

Emetic

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Achyranthes aspera (Amaranthaceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Catunaregam spinosa (Rubiaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Entada phaseoloides (Fabaceae)

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Convolvulaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Phyllanthus acidus (Phyllanthaceae)

Smilax aspera (Smilacaceae)

Smilax guianensis (Smilacaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Emmenagogue

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae)

Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Taxus baccata (Taxaceae)

Tabernaemontana divaricata (Apocynaceae)

Emollient

Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae)

Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae)

Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus schizopetalus (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus vitifolius (Malvaceae)

Malvastrum coromandelianum (Malvaceae)

Senecio densiflorus (Asteraceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Energy, low

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Epilepsy

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Colebrookea oppositifolia (Lamiaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Flemingia strobilifera (Fabaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Strychnos wallichiana (Loganiaceae)

Erysipelas

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Quassia indica (Simaroubaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Excretory

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Exhaustion

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Expectorant

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Malvastrum coromandelianum (Malvaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Eye

-disease

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Phyllodium pulchellum (Fabaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-health

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Cananga odorata (Annonaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Hygrophila phlomoides (Acanthaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Thunbergia laurifolia (Acanthaceae)

-infection

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Emilia sonchifolia (Asteraceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-wash

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Fatigue

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

-asthma-related

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

-childbirth-related

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Febrifuge. See Antipyretic.

Feet, cracks on

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Female disorders

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Fertility

Paederia foetida (Rubiaceae)

Fetal disorders

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Fever

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Catunaregam spinosa (Rubiaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Exacum tetragonum (Gentianaceae)

Ficus rumphii (Moraceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Olax scandens (Olacaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Quassia indica (Simaroubaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Strobilanthes auriculatus (Acanthaceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Volkameria inermis (Lamiaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

-from chest colds/infections

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

-dengue hemorrhagic fever

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

-typhoid fever

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

-urinary disease

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Fistula

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Flatulence. See also Carminative.

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Hygrophila phlomoides (Acanthaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

-control

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

-elimination

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rhus chinensis (Anacardiaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Termin alia citrina (Combretaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Fomentation

Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae)

Memecylon edule (Melastomataceae)

Pavetta indica (Rubiaceae)

Syzygium nervosum (Myrtaceae)

Fortifier. See also Strengthen.

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Freckles

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Galactagogue

Alternanthera sessilis (Amaranthaceae)

Capparis flavicans (Capparaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Commicarpus chinensis (Nyctaginaceae)

Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae)

Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae)

Gall bladder

-disease

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

-function

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

-stones

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Gas. See Flatulence.

Gastric problems

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Gastritis

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Gastrointestinal functioning

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Giddiness

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Gingivitis

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Goiter

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Gonorrhea

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Chrozophora plicata (Euphorbiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Equisetum ramosissimum subsp. debile (Equisetaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Sida spinosa (Malvaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Gout

Cananga odorata (Annonaceae)

Mallotus nudiflorus (Euphorbiaceae)

Melaleuca cajuputi (Myrtaceae)

Granulation

Jatropha multifida (Euphorbiaceae)

Ventilago denticulata (Rhamnaceae)

Gums, inflated

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Hair

-growth and health

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-loss

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Halitosis

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Headaches

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Cananga odorata (Annonaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae)

Haldina cordifolia (Rubiaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

-migraines

Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae)

Healing, hasten

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Health, general

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Spermacoce hispida (Rubiaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Heart

-disease

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia tomentosa (Combretaceae)

-functions

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

-irregularities

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Heat

-body

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

-diminish

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

-stroke

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Heaviness

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Hematuria

Rhizophora mucronata (Rhizophoraceae)

Hemorrhage. See also Bleeding.

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Ixora chinensis (Rubiaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Hemorrhoids

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Hepalomegaly. See Liver.

Hepatitis

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Herpes

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Hiccups

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Hunger, initiate

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Hydragogue. See also Carthatic, Laxative, Purgative.

Allamanda cathartica (Apocynaceae)

Hypertension

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Hypoglycemic

Zea mays (Poaceae)

Hysteria

Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae)

Illnesses, infant

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Immune function

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Impetigo

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Indigestion

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Eurycoma longifolia (Simaroubaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Grewia nervosa (Malvaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Infection

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

-ear

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

-fungus

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

-gums

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

-intestinal

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

-post childbirth

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

-skin

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Infirmity (Debility)

Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae)

Inflammations

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aglaia cucullata (Meliaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Martynia annua (Martyniaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

-abdomen

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

-appendix

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

-bladder

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

-breast

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

-eye

Albizia lebbeck (Fabaceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

-gum

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-internal

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

-intestines

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

-joint

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

-liver

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

-oral

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

-spleen

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

-testes

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Influenza

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Insanity

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Insomnia

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Internal disease or disorder, general

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Schefflera venulosa (Araliaceae)

Intestines

-amoebae

Dysphania ambrosioides (Amaranthaceae)

-function

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

-infection

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Intoxication

Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Irritant

Caryota mitis (Arecaceae)

Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae)

Itch

Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)

Jaundice

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Oldenlandia corymbosa (Rubiaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Joint, dislocation

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Kidney

-disease

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

Portulaca oleracea (Portulaceae)

-stones

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Prunus cerasoides (Rosaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Lactation

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

-induction

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Laryngitis

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Laxative. See also Carthatic, Hydragogue, Purgative.

Amaranthus cruentus (Amaranthaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae)

Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae)

Aristolochia tagala (Aristolochiaceae)

Barringtonia acutangula (Lecythidaceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Bauhinia purpurea (Fabaceae)

Boehmeria nivea (Urticaceae)

Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)

Buchanania lancifolia (Anacardiaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Chamaecrista pumila (Fabaceae)

Cheilocostus speciosus (Costaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Coriaria nepalensis (Coriariaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Cullen corylifolium (Fabaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Hibiscus cannabinus (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae)

Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae)

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Momordica cochinchinensis (Cucurbitaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Pavetta indica (Rubiaceae)

Phyllanthus acidus (Phyllanthaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Portulaca oleracea (Portulaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Senna italica (Fabaceae)

Senna tora (Fabaceae)

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Leprosy

Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Convolvulaceae)

Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Lesions. See also Skin sores.

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Leucoderma

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Lice

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Limb problems

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Liniment

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Helicteres isora (Malvaceae)

Kydia calycina (Malvaceae)

Syzygium nervosum (Myrtaceae)

Lips, cracked

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Liver

-disease

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Erythrina variegata (Fabaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

-enlargement (hepalomegaly)

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

-health

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Longevity

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Lung disease. See also Pneumonia.

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Malaises

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

-male

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

-female

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Malaria

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Cananga odorata (Annonaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Poaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Picrasma javanica (Simaroubaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Male diseases/maladies

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

-spermatorrhea

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Measles

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Memory

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Menopause

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Menstruation

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-disorders

Abroma augustum (Malvaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Ardisia humilis (Primulaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elephantopus scaber (Asteraceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nauclea orientalis (Rubiaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

-excessive

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

-menorrhagia

Phyllanthus niruri (Phyllanthaceae)

Saraca indica (Fabaceae)

Ziziphus rugosa (Rhamnaceae)

-residual discharge

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

-stimulation of,

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Mental disorder

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Mind, clearing/focusing

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Morning-sickness

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Mosquito repellent

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Mouth

-blisters

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

-dry

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

-sores

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Mouthwash

Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae)

Neolamarckia cadamba (Rubiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Mucus. See also Phlegm.

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae)

Muscle

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

-knots

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-spasms/twitches

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Narcotic

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Datura metel (Solanaceae)

Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae)

Rhododendron moulmainense (Ericaceae)

Solanum melongena (Solanaceae)

Nausea

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Anathum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Flacourtia jangomas (Salicaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Nervine

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

Neuralgia

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Neurological disease

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Night-blindness

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Numbness

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Nutritional/Nutritive

Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae)

Obesity

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Araceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Ointments. See also Liniments.

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)

Ophtalmia

Barringtonia acutangula (Lecythidaceae)

Cananga odorata (Annonaceae)

Symplocos racemosa (Symplocaceae)

Orchitus

Altingia excelsa (Altingiaceae)

Overeating

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Pain/Ache. See also Analgesic.

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Vallaris solanacea (Apocynaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-abdominal

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

-ague

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

-back

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

-bladder

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

-body

Lannea coromandelica (Anacardiaceae)

-bone

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

-bowel

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

-breast

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

-chest

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Momordica cochinchinensis (Cucurbitaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-eye

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

-flatulence

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

-gastric

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

-groin

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

-heart

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

-intestinal

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

-joint

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

-menstrual

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

-muscle

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

-stomach

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Pogostemon cablin (Lamiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

-tongue

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

-urinary

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-uterus

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Palpitations

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Araceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Paralysis

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Eryngium caeruleum (Apiaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Paederia foetida (Rubiaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

-facial

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

-partial

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

-stroke-induced

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Parasites. See also Ringworms, Roundworms, Threadworms, Worms.

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Perspiration

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Phlegm. See also Mucus.

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna alexandrina (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Piles. See Hemorrhoids.

Plague

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Pleurisy

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Pneumonitis

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Poison

Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

-alcohol

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Mayodendron igneum (Bignoniaceae)

Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae)

-animal

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

-arsenic

Cinnamomum camphora ((Lauraceae)

-centipede

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

-food/medicines

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

-opium

Celastrus paniculatus (Celastraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae)

-rat

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

-scorpion

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

-snake

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Butea superba (Fabaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Leucaena leucocephala (Fabaceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Acanthaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Strobilanthes auriculatus (Acanthaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

-spiders

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

-stomach

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Poultice

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Adenanthera pavonina (Fabaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Avicennia officinalis (Acanthaceae)

Bambusa bambos (Poaceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Ficus hispida (Moraceae)

Hygrophila phlomoides (Acanthaceae)

Kopsia fruticosa (Apocynaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Pox

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Prolapsus uteri

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Psora

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Markhamia stipulata (Bignoniaceae)

Purgative. See also Carthatic, Hydragogue, Laxative.

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Agave sisalana (Asparagaceae)

Agave vera-cruz (Asparagaceae)

Artocarpus lakoocha (Moraceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Fabaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Claoxylon indicum (Euphorbiaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Cordia dichotoma (Boraginaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Cynometra ramiflora (Fabaceae)

Euphorbia antiquorum (Euphorbiaceae)

Jatropha gossypiifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

Lagerstroemia speciosa (Lythraceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Phyllanthus acidus (Phyllanthaceae)

Sambucus javanica (Adoxaceae)

Pus

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Pyexia

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Rabies

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Rashes

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Renal complaints

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Wrightia arborea (Apocynaceae)

Respiratory function

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae)

Restlessness

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Restorative

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Rheumatism

Acanthus ilicifolius (Acanthaceae)

Aglaia cucullata (Meliaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Poaceae)

Holoptelea integrifolia (Ulmaceae)

Hygrophila auriculata (Acanthaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Quassia indica (Simaroubaceae)

Syzygium nervosum (Myrtaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Xylia xylocarpa (Fabaceae)

Ringworm

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Jasminum humile (Oleaceae)

Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Roundworm

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Rubefacient

Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae)

Cleome gynandra (Cleomaceae)

Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae)

Runny noses

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Sagging belly

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Araceae)

Scabies

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Scalp, flaky

Santalum album (Santalaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Scrofula

Volkameria inermis (Lamiaceae)

Sedative

Brugmansia arborea (Solanaceae)

Brugmansia suaveolens (Solanaceae)

Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae)

Datura metel (Solanaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Flemingia chappar (Fabaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Taxus baccata (Taxaceae)

Vitex negundo (Lamiaceae)

Semen

-control

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

-excessive

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

-increase

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Sexual functioning

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

-impotence

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

-lack of semen

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Leucas cephalotes (Lamiaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Sickness, general

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Sinusitis

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Cordyline fruticosa (Laxmanniaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Skin condition, support

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Skin diseases. See also individual diseases.

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Argemone mexicana (Papaveraceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)

Buddleja asiatica (Scrophulariaceae)

Callicarpa macrophylla (Lamiaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Colocasia antiquorum (Araceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Grewia asiatica (Malvaceae)

Grewia nervosa (Malvaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Jasminum humile (Oleaceae)

Jatropha gossypiifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Pterospermum acerifolium (Malvaceae)

Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Sigesbeckia orientalis (Asteraceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Vaccaria hispanica (Caryophyllaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-discoloration

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Hygrophila phlomoides (Acanthaceae)

-from blood impurities

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

-fungal infection

Hygrophila phlomoides (Acanthaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

-pimples

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

Skin sores

Acacia farnesiana (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gouania leptostachya (Rhamnaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Picrasma javanica (Simaroubaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

-cold

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

-inflamed sores

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

-leprous

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

-lesions

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

-remove maggots from,

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Haldina cordifolia (Rubiaceae)

-warts

Euphorbia antiquorum (Euphorbiaceae)

Sleep disorders. See also Insomnia, Restlessness, Soporific.

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Smallpox

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Pterospermum acerifolium (Malvaceae)

Soporific

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Amaranthus cruentus (Amaranthaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Fritillaria cirrhosa (Liliaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Sore. See also Pain.

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

-eyes

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

-gums

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

-joints

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

-muscles

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Sores. See Skin Sores.

Sore throat. See Throat, Sore.

Spasmolytic. See Antispasmodic.

Speech improvement

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Spleen

-diseases

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

-enlargement

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Splinters, remove

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Sternutative

Ipomoea hederifolia (Convolvulaceae)

Stiffness

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

-muscle

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

-neck

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Stimulant

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Ardisia humilis (Primulaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Celastrus paniculatus (Celastraceae)

Chloranthus elatior (Chloranthaceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Melaleuca cajuputi (Myrtaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Sigesbeckia orientalis (Asteraceae)

Solanum melongena (Solanaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

-brain

Dimocarpus longan (Sapindaceae)

Sting. See also Bite, Poison.

Commelina paludosa (Commelinaceae)

Euonymus kachinensis (Celastraceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Stomachache

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon nardus (Poaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Morinda angustifolia (Rubiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Senna siamea (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

Stomach

-bloat

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Croton persimilis (Euphorbiaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

-distention

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

-function

Selinum wallichianum (Apiaceae)

-in children

Persicaria pulchra (Polygonaceae)

-problems

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Clausena excavata (Rutaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Stomachic

Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae)

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Callicarpa macrophylla (Lamiaceae)

Capparis zeylanica (Capparaceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Crateva religiosa (Capparaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Gmelina arborea (Lamiaceae)

Helicteres isora (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus schizopetalus (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus vitifolius (Malvaceae)

Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae)

Lablab purpureus (Fabaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Ocimum tenuiflorum (Lamiaceae)

Premna serratifolia (Lamiaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Urtica parviflora (Urticaceae)

Stomatitis

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Flacourtia jangomas (Salicaceae)

Strengthener. See also Fortifier.

-blood

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carallia brachiata (Rhizophoraceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

-gall bladder

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

-heart

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

-kidney

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

-stomach

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

-teeth

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Styptic. See Astringent.

Stroke

Benincasa hispida (Cucurbitaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Stupor, induction

Mitragyna speciosa (Rubiaceae)

Sudorific. See also Diaphoretic.

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Limonia acidissima (Rutaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Zanthoxylum acanthopodium (Rutaceae)

Swelling

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Dioscorea pentaphylla (Dioscoreaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Lannea coromandelica (Anacardiaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Xylocarpus granatum (Meliaceae)

Xylocarpus moluccensis (Meliaceae)

-abdominal

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

-ankle

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-joint

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Girardinia diversifolia (Urticaceae)

Morinda coreia (Rubiaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

-knee

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-penis

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

-windpipe

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Syphilis. See also Antisyphilitic, Venereal Disease.

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

-rheumatism caused by

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Taste, loss of

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Testes enlargement

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Tetanus

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Thirst

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Thorn remover

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Threadworms

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Throat

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

-blisters

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Throat, sore

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Thrush

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Tightness

Claoxylon indicum (Euphorbiaceae)

Tongue,

-cracked

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

-sores

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Tonic

Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

Anethum graveolens (Apiaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Aristolochia tagala (Aristolochiaceae)

Artemisia dracunculus (Asteraceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Bombax ceiba (Malvaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Canavalia ensiformis (Fabaceae)

Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cissampelos pareira (Menispermaceae)

Cyanthillium cinereum (Asteraceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Elephantopus scaber (Asteraceae)

Eryngium caeruleum (Apiaceae)

Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae)

Glycine max (Fabaceae)

Heynea trijuga (Meliaceae)

Hymenodictyon orixense (Rubiaceae)

Ichnocarpus frutescens (Apocynaceae)

Lantana × aculeata (Verbenaceae)

Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Nauclea orientalis (Rubiaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Pterospermum acerifolium (Malvaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rubia cordifolia (Rubiaceae)

Semecarpus anacardium (Anacardiaceae)

Senna siamea (Fabaceae)

Sida spinosa (Malvaceae)

Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tabernaemontana divaricata (Apocynaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae)

-brain

Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae)

-heart

Antiaris toxicaria (Moraceae)

Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae)

Digitalis lanata (Plantaginaceae)

Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae)

Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae)

-liver

Litchi chinensis (Sapindaceae)

Toothache

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae)

Nicandra physalodes (Solanaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Tooth disease

Barleria prionitis (Acanthaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Toxic, opium. See also Poison.

Celastrus paniculatus (Celastraceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Toxins, purge. See also Poison, Purgative.

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae)

Tranquilizer

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Trembling

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Trim body

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Araceae)

Tuberculosis

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Ixora chinensis (Rubiaceae)

Martynia annua (Martyniaceae)

Tumor

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae)

Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Ulcers

Acacia catechu (Fabaceae)

Albizia odoratissima (Fabaceae)

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Bauhinia acuminata (Fabaceae)

Careya arborea (Lecythidaceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Ficus benjamina (Moraceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Gmelina arborea (Lamiaceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Hydrolea zeylanica (Hydroleaceae)

Jasminum multiflorum (Oleaceae)

Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Stachytarpheta indica (Verbenaceae)

Streblus asper (Moraceae)

-canker sores

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Ficus semicordata (Moraceae)

Unconsciousness

Aristolochia indica (Aristolochiaceae)

Urinary concretions

Bridelia retusa (Phyllanthaceae)

Urinary system

Aloe vera (Asphodelaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Convolvulus arvensis (Convolvulaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Mentha arvensis (Lamiaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

-difficulty in passing urine

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Senna sulfurea (Fabaceae)

-excessive

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

-infection

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

-loose stool

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

-retention

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)

Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Carthamus tinctorius (Asteraceae)

Centella asiatica (Apiaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Crinum asiaticum (Amaryllidaceae)

Curcuma comosa (Zingiberaceae)

Cyperus scariosus (Cyperaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-too little urine

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Urinary tract disorder

Acacia pennata (Fabaceae)

Asparagus officinalis (Asparagaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Butea monosperma (Fabaceae)

Canna indica (Cannaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cassia fistula (Fabaceae)

Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae)

Enydra fluctuans (Asteraceae)

Ipomoea alba (Convolvulaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Magnolia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Mansonia gagei (Malvaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Orthosiphon aristatus (Lamiaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Trichosanthes tricuspidata (Cucurbitaceae)

Uterus

-discharge

Euphorbia antiquorum (Euphorbiaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

-infection

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

-leimyomas

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Vaginal discharge

Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Alysicarpus vaginalis (Fabaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Plantago major (Plantaginaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae)

Vascular fuctioning. See also Circulatory system.

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Venereal disease. See also Gonorrhea, Herpes, Syphilis.

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Rotheca incisa (Lamiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Smilax glabra (Smilacaceae)

Smilax guianensis (Smilacaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Volkameria inermis (Lamiaceae)

-joint inflammation from

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

-sores

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

-vaginal discharge due to,

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae)

Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae)

Vermifuge

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Calotropis gigantea (Apocynaceae)

Eurycoma longifolia (Simaroubaceae)

Passiflora quadrangularis (Passifloraceae)

Senna tora (Fabaceae)

Solanum anguivi (Solanaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Vesicant

Cleome gynandra (Cleomaceae)

Virility

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Cuscuta reflexa (Convolvulaceae)

Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Vitality

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)

Coptis teeta (Ranunculaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Dregea volubilis (Apocynaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Ipomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Piper cubeba (Piperaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Sesbania sesban (Fabaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Vitiligo

Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)

Millingtonia hortensis (Bignoniaceae)

Terminalia bellirica (Combretaceae)

Vomit

Acacia concinna (Fabaceae)

Acalypha indica (Euphorbiaceae)

Amaranthus spinosus (Amaranthaceae)

Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Arundo donax (Poaceae)

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Cinnamomum tamala (Lauraceae)

Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae)

Coix lacryma-jobi (Poaceae)

Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae)

Hydnocarpus kurzii (Achariaceae)

Justicia adhatoda (Acanthaceae)

Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae)

Rauvolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae)

Strychnos potatorum (Loganiaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Asteraceae)

Terminalia citrina (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae)

-of blood

Mimosa pudica (Fabaceae)

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

Tradescantia spathacea (Commelinaceae)

Vulnerary. See also Wounds.

Celosia argentea (Amaranthaceae)

Wasting

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Weakness

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Cardiospermum halicacabum (Sapindaceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Lauraceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

-during menstruation

Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Weight gain

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae)

Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Moraceae)

Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Oroxylum indicum (Bignoniaceae)

Plumbago indica (Plumbaginaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Weight loss

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Vitex trifolia (Lamiaceae)

Whooping cough

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Croton tiglium (Euphorbiaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Piper betle (Piperaceae)

Rotheca serrata (Lamiaceae)

Senna alata (Fabaceae)

Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)

Worms

Acorus calamus (Acoraceae)

Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Clerodendrum indicum (Lamiaceae)

Coccinia grandis (Crassulaceae)

Combretum indicum (Combretaceae)

Eclipta prostrata (Asteraceae)

Holarrhena pubescens (Apocynaceae)

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Mucuna pruriens (Fabaceae)

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (Oleaceae)

Piper longum (Piperaceae)

Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae)

Tadehagi triquetrum (Fabaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

-guinea worm

Leea macrophylla (Vitaceae)

-intestinal worms

Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

-threadworms, roundworms

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Wounds

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)

Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae)

Calophyllum inophyllum (Calophyllaceae)

Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Cycas rumphii (Cycadaceae)

Diospyros malabarica (Ebenaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Ficus retusa (Moraceae)

Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae)

Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae)

Zingiber montanum (Zingiberaceae)

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Yaws

Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Exact purposes not given

Culinary purposes:

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (Apiaceae)

Medicinal values/purposes:

Acalypha wilkesiana (Euphorbiaceae)

Amherstia nobilis (Fabaceae)

Bougainvillea spectabilis (Nyctaginaceae)

Clerodendrum thomsoniae (Lamiaceae)

Delonix regia (Fabaceae)

Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae)

Grewia asiatica (Malvaceae) (root)

Grewia hirsuta (Malvaceae)

Kopsia fruticosa (Apocynaceae)

Linostoma pauciflorum (Thymelaeaceae)

Spatholobus parviflorus (Fabaceae)

Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (Apiaceae)

Oral medications:

Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)