Waterton Lakes National Park protects 505 km² of the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains in south-western Alberta, ranging in elevation from 1,290 to 2,910 m a.s.l. The park forms part of the Crown of the Continent ecosystem, where several different ecological regions meet, leading to extremely high biological diversity. Here you can find species from the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Northwest. The park contains 45 different vegetation types, including grasslands, shrub lands, wetlands, lakes, spruce-fir, pine and aspen forests and alpine areas. Waterton lies within the Canadian Rockies ecoregion, which extends into western Montana as Glacier National Park and the Bob Marshall Wilderness complex.

The following description was taken from Woods et al. (2002):

“The Canadian Rockies ecoregion is composed of high, wet mountains. Significant portions are covered by snowfields and glaciers. Glaciated terrain is common and characterized by U-shaped valleys, moraines, cirques, tarns, and outwash features. This ecoregion extends into northern Montana from Alberta and British Columbia. The ecoregion is generally higher and more snow- and ice-covered than the Northern Rockies, and portions are strongly influenced by moist maritime air masses. Melting snow and rainfall are abundant at higher elevations. Some surplus water is stored in glacial deposits, unconsolidated mountain valley fill, and permeable sedimentary rocks. However, areas underlain by crystalline rocks lack sufficient groundwater storage capacity to prevent overland runoff or to develop groundwater supplies; in these places, base flow is meager and high elevation streams generally flow only during rain and snow melt periods. The highest elevations are treeless, glaciated alpine areas. The potential natural vegetation is mostly subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, and Engelmann spruce. Soils are thin or absent on upper mountain slopes but become deeper and more developed below, especially west of the Continental Divide. Recreation, forestry, and mining are common land uses”.

In the spring and summer of 2009, 41 samples of benthic diatoms were collected from waters in Waterton Lakes National Park, the Canadian component of the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (Table 1, Figs 2–14). The samples were collected in the course of scheduled pond and stream monitoring and assessment projects. All samples consisted of some surface water and scraping of a submerged object. One objective of benthic diatom sampling was to determine the presence and extent in the Park of Didymosphenia geminata (Lyngbye) M. Schmidt (“Didymo” or “rock snot”), which at the time was reported in large numbers from many streams in adjacent Glacier National Park (Bahls 2007, Schweiger et al. 2011). Didymo was detected in 14 samples collected from Waterton Lakes National Park in 2009; all of the Waterton samples that contained Didymo were from flowing waters, including the Waterton River, Belly River and several smaller streams.

Figure 2. 

The centrepiece of Waterton Lakes National Park is Waterton Lake, which extends southwards for 11 km from the Prince of Wales Hotel in Alberta, Canada (right centre) to the Goat Haunt Ranger Station at the far end of the lake in Montana, USA (middle distance). Waterton Lake at Goat Haunt is the type locality of Cymatopleura internationale Bahls (2013). Photo credit: Parks Canada.

Figures 3–8. 

Representative flowing-water habitats sampled for diatoms in Waterton Lakes National Park 3 Belly River (4547) 4 Rowe Creek (4563) 5 Bertha Creek (4555, 4556) 6 Bauerman Creek (4565, 4566) 7 Crooked Creek (4559) 8 Cameron Creek (4546, 4548). Photos credit: Parks Canada.

Figures 9–14. 

Representative standing-water habitats sampled for diatoms in Waterton Lakes National Park 9 Blakiston Beaver Pond B (4534) 10 Summit Lake (4569) 11 Lower Giant’s Mirror Pond (4541) 12 Blakiston Roadside Pond (4532) 13 Lost Lake (4568) 14 Sofa Wetland B (4542). Photos credit: Parks Canada.

The Haida Gwaii Archipelago lies about 500 km northwest of Vancouver Island and is separated from the British Columbia mainland by the 70 to 100 km-wide Hecate Strait (Fig. 1). The Archipelago consists of a 300 km-long, north-south trending group of islands in the shape of a “V”. Along the western branch of the “V” is a mountain range with summits over 1,100 m elevation. Higher elevations on the archipelago support mountain hemlock and alpine tundra vegetation; lower elevations are dominated by coastal red cedar, pine, western hemlock and Sitka spruce (Banner et al. 1989).

The coastline along the eastern edge of Haida Gwaii has fluctuated dramatically since 12,000 years BP (Josenhans et al. 1995, 1997). At that time, sea level was about 150 m lower than it is today. By 9,000 years BP, the sea level had risen sharply to 15 m higher than today and remained at that level until about 5,000 years BP, falling to current levels by about 2,000 years BP. These fluctuations are the result of interplay between isostatic, eustatic and tectonic forces in the area. As a result of these fluctuations, Holocene archaeological sites (9,000–5,000 years BP) are stranded in the forest well above their original coastal locations. Diatom remains in sediments of coastal fresh-water ponds include evidence of past salt-water intrusions (Pienitz et al. 2003).

Six samples were collected from freshwater habitats in July 2013 and another three samples were collected from fresh and brackish waters in May 2017 (Table 2). The three samples collected in 2017 were originally numbered 1, 2 and 3 but are re-numbered 7, 8 and 9 here to avoid confusion with the 2013 samples. Sites sampled in 2013 were accessed from the coast by kayak; sites sampled in 2017 were accessed by inland routes. The following descriptions of the sample sites are taken from the field notes of Beverly Boynton.

Fresh-water samples, July 2013

All samples included squeezed vegetation, a scraped rock or stick, surface water and a few ml of iodine added. Samples were taken well above any tidal influence. Sites would all have infrequent human visitation (maybe less than yearly, or even never), especially since I (BB) walked upstream further than needed if people were getting drinking water.

Sample #1, Harriet Harbour stream pool (Fig. 15) July 11, 2013

Figures 15–21. 

Haida Gwaii collection sites in 2013 15 Site 1 (5062) 16 Site 2 (5063) 17, 18 Site 3 (5064) 19 Site 4 (5065) 20 Site 5 (5066) 21 Site 6 (5067). Photo credits: Beverly Boynton, D. Moore (15), Hope Sneller Moore (17).

52°17.422'N, 131°12.799'W Elevation near sea level

Flowing stream, sample from a pool. Mature western hemlock forest with some western red cedar and red alder, plus salal, grasses, mosses. The abandoned Jedway mine is to the west and north, but this stream seems to be outside their operations. (Jedway was an iron-copper mine, last operating in 1969.) Rock scrapings, plus vegetation squeeze, surface water.

Sample #2, Island Bay stream pool (Fig. 16) July 13, 2013

52°21.130'N, 131°24.643'W Elevation 20 m

Clear water, pools interspersed with small fast-flowing rocky cascades. Western hemlock, western red cedar, salal, mosses, ferns. Vegetation squeeze was of short black and green mosses, scraping was of a submerged stick with filamentous green vegetation (algae?) and surface slime.

Sample #3, lake on Mt. Yatza (front cover, Figs 17, 18) July 14, 2013

52°20.533'N, 131°26.172'W Elevation 550 m

Vegetation squeeze consisted of roots of submerged sedge and black moss; scraping from a submerged rock and surface water. Many sundews on shore, along with grasses, sedges.

Sample #4, lake on Juan Perez Sound/De La Beche Inlet (Fig. 19) July 20, 2013

52°33.121'N, 131°38.422'W Elevation 10 m

Site is 170 m from sea by GPS straight line, beyond the outlet choked with deadfall and yellow pond lilies (no ducks, but other birds seen on the lake, many dragonflies). Clear water, rocky (granite?), moss and sediment on bottom, some submerged grass-like plants. Forested around lake with western hemlock, western red cedar, no Sitka spruce or shore pines. Vegetation squeeze of dirty moss, rock scrape, surface water. Probably very few have been here, with good reason as even though it was a short distance, it was a vicious bushwhack.

Sample #5, stream pool on west end of Kostan Inlet (Fig. 20) July 20, 2013

52°34.752'N, 131°42.999'W Elevation 11 m

A pool just below a riffle. Open ground with grasses, in forest of western hemlock, Sitka spruce, western red cedar, red alder. Rocky shore and stream bottom. Hard to squeeze water from the brown moss on some rocks, no submerged plants or other vegetation. Squeezed what I could, added some water from near bottom, scraped rock with brown moss and slime, surface water.

Sample #6, stream pool east of Lyell Point (Fig. 21) July 22, 2013

52°42.456'N, 131°43.033'W Elevation 116 m

Stream scant but brisk flow into a small pool. Clear water, brown moss and rocks. Forest of red alder, western hemlock, western red cedar, salal, mosses, ferns. Squeezed brown moss (which was longer and easier to squeeze than previous samples), scraped a rock, surface water. Probably no one has been to this particular place.

Fresh- and brackish-water samples, May 2017

All samples included squeezed vegetation, a scraped rock or stick, surface water and a few ml of iodine added. According to locals, May was more rainy and cooler than usual.

Sample #7, roadside bog off Route BC-16 W (Figs 22–25) May 9, 2017

Figures 22–28. 

Haida Gwaii collection sites in 2017 22–25 Site 7 (6888) 26 Site 8 (6889) 27 Site 9 (6890) 28 Rennell Sound from sample site 9. Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

53°55.629'N, 132°06.419'W Elevation 48 m pH 4.36, T 10.6 °C

Large bog area, mostly dry, with scattered shore pine, tiny western red cedar with yellowish needles, scattered small common juniper and black crowberry, grasses, bog rosemary, Labrador tea, bog cranberry, Sphagnum and other mosses, lichen. Deep layer of peat (dug 0.3 m down with more peat below). Sample from a small area of standing water ~2 m square. Sunny, except where grassy edges of water block the sun. This bog is in the Queen Charlotte Lowlands, on northeast Graham Island, an area quite unlike the topography of the rest of Haida Gwaii, which has a central forested plateau area and mountain ranges. This lowland area is part of the Hecate Depression and includes the Argonaut Plain.

Sample #8, East Limestone Island forest bog (Fig. 26) May 14, 2017

52°54.645'N, 131°36.868'W Elevation 33 m pH 7.6, T 10.8 °C

East Limestone Island is a small limestone island off the east coast of Haida Gwaii. The sample is from a bog with standing water, at the base of a huge Sitka spruce uprooted during a blow down in 2010. The site seems too far from ocean to get sea spray or surge tides. Mosses, grasses, ferns. Sunny when sun in the east, then shady. Thimbleberry, a few other forbs not yet budding.

Sample #9, mouth of river entering Rennell Sound (Fig. 27) May 20, 2017

53°24.543'N, 132°31.821'W Elevation 0 m pH 7.40, T 12.2 °C

Brackish (?) sample. River mouth is directly facing Rennell Sound, tide was rising (still had 1–2 hours to go), wind was blowing into the Sound from Pacific Ocean. Rainy and foggy as often is the case on west coast Haida Gwaii. There was a faint current in middle of the river, slack/eddy on edges where sample was taken (about 15 m from the Sound itself). Sand and gravel bottom and on surrounding land, with a submerged dead western red cedar at sample site providing the scrape; a few clumps of green algae floating around provided the vegetation squeeze.

The following account is taken from the field notes of Beverly Boynton:

Sampling was done in June 2014 while on a 20-day canoe trip from the headwaters of the Clearwater River in Saskatchewan (Forrest Lake) to its confluence with the Athabasca River in Alberta (Fig. 1), estimated to be about 480 river kilometres. Moser et al. (2004) reported on the ecology of diatoms in lakes of Wood Buffalo National Park, which is located about 200 km northwest of the Clearwater/Athabasca River confluence.

The first six samples are from the boreal forest of the Canadian Shield. This area is largely an open-canopy jack pine, black spruce and white spruce forest, with extensive areas of lichens. There are also numerous shrubs, including willows, alders, birch and some forbs. The soil is shallow, i.e. often just an inch (2.5 cm) of forest detritus, on top of deep sand. The area has almost no rocks of any size that we saw (except in rapids) until we were almost off the Shield. The Shield itself is Precambrian granitic rock.

The last three samples are from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (depositions from inland seas advancing and retreating). This area has numerous outcrops and gorges of limestone and dolomite. The soil is much deeper, organic soil with clay, supporting a mixed forest of closed-canopy paper birch, white spruce, balsam poplar and a great many shrubs and forbs.

Both areas are topographically fairly flat (especially on the Shield), with an enormous number of shallow gouges from the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which are filled with water. One does not need to walk far to encounter a bog, fen, marsh, swamp, pond, lake or creek. Drainage is generally poor because of the flatness. The hydrology is still quite young and sorting itself out and still influenced by post-glacial rebound.

No samples came from the Clearwater River itself or from areas that seemed to be receiving flow from the River. Because of the low number of people on most sections of the river, along with most people’s general distaste for spending time in bogs, fens, marshes and swamps, the specific sampling sites are probably rarely if ever visited and did not seem to be disturbed. Mosquitoes and blackflies were moderately bad in general on this trip, but were not worse at the sampling sites and posed little problem for the Slime Crew (my husband assisted with some collecting). As always, seeking out these microhabitats added immensely to the interest of the trip; botany and geology were highlights.

All samples consisted of some surface water, a vegetation squeeze and scraping of a submerged object. There were no rocks to scrape and the sticks (when found) had only a minimal slimy feel. If sediment was present on the surface, it was sampled.

Coordinates are WGS84, latitude-longitude in degrees and decimal minutes, elevation in metres. Unfortunately, my camera drowned after the first week; pictures are then from my Itouch; however, the last nine days were quite overcast and I barely was able to keep my Itouch recharged from my Solio. All samples are from the watershed of the Clearwater River.

Sample #1, bog near Naomi Lake (Fig. 29) June 8, 2014

Figures 29–35. 

Collection sites along the Clearwater River corridor 29 Site 1 (6273) 30, 31 Site 2 (6274) 32 Site 3 (6275) 33, 34 Site 4 (6276) 35 Site 5 (6277). Photos credit: B. Boynton.

57°38.383'N, 109°02.102'W Elevation 498 m pH 6.2, T not taken

Looks like I forgot the iodine on this; I added some on July 1. Area of small bogs within a larger area of semi-open jack pine, reindeer moss and Labrador tea. In the bog: mountain cranberry, Labrador tea, lichens, mosses.

Sample #2, bog near outlet of Dell Lake (Figs 30, 31) June 9, 2014

57°35.342'N, 108°51.487'W Elevation 480 m pH 4.6, T not taken

Clear, sunny, no obvious flow. Sphagnum blanket with a lot of leatherleaf, some larch, small balsam fir, Labrador tea, cottongrass, cloudberry.

Sample #3, bog between Lloyd Lake and First Gorge (Fig. 32) June 13, 2014

57°10.563'N, 108°38.360'W Elevation 470 m pH 4.96, T not taken

Sphagnum moss, sunny, clear, no obvious flow. A few small jack pine and black spruce, a lot of bog birch, sedges, bog rosemary and bog laurel. Elk scat in the water.

Sample #4, fen adjacent to a lake (Figs 33, 34) June 14, 2014

57°05.537'N, 108°19.593'W Elevation 453 m no pH or T taken

Looks like I forgot the iodine on this; I added some on July 1. Extensive area of standing water adjacent to a lake. Moss, Sphagnum, bog rosemary, bog birch, leather leaf, jack pine, river birch, a few sedges, Labrador tea. Sediment on surface.

Sample #5, wet grassy meadow near Granite Gorge (Figs 35, 36) June 16, 2014

Figures 36–41. 

Collection sites along the Clearwater River corridor 36 Site 5 (6277) 37 Site 6 (6278) 38, 39 Site 7 (6279) 40 Site 8 (6280) 41 Site 9 (6281). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

57°00.298'N, 108°26.680'W Elevation 439 m pH 6.89, T 16.2 °C

The Clearwater runs through Granite Gorge with big rapids, then a fairly large arm doubles back to end at edge of sample site meadow. Samples are at an elevation such that it probably does not get flooded from the river (this was a high water year while we were there). The grass is thick with wet muck and some standing water. My sample is near base of a steep-sloped bench of jack pines and paper birch, with a few small balsam poplars, plus lichens, mosses, cranberries, kinnikinnick etc. One picture shows a small flow of water coming off the bench to sample site. Sample site has marsh cinquefoils, bog birch, grasses, willows, dwarf raspberry. Sample taken from a small area of open water with no obvious flow, sunny, clear. Some specks of sediment floating on top, plus 10 × 10 cm blobs of red-brown stuff floating. Some (natural?) oil seeps here. Bottom is muck and debris. [The Alberta tar sands are about 100 km northwest of here.]

Sample #6, swamp above Olsen Rapid (Fig. 37) June 17, 2014

56°55.749'N, 108°39.526'W Elevation 437 m pH 5.22, T 13.9 °C Swamp with mature jack pine, alive in water. A few grasses. Water clear, no obvious flow, surface has clusters of bubbles (amphibian eggs?). Bottom mucky with organic detritus. Swamp is within a mature jack pine forest with the usual lichens, cranberries, dwarf blueberries, many wild lily of the valley and bunchberries. Some fireweed, mosses, Saskatoon (service berry).

Sample #7, small stream (Figs 38, 39) June 20, 2014

56°46.338'N, 109°17.041'W Elevation 371 m pH 7.7, T 21.5 °C

Small semi-shaded, slowly-flowing stream, clear water, draining towards Clearwater. Birch, willow and alder forest, with mosses, currant, strawberry, horsetails, Mertensia. Bottom was leafy detritus, muck. Sample was from a still pool. Still on the Shield, pink granitic rock with frequent outcrops.

Sample #8, wet meadow above bend in Clearwater (Fig. 40) June 22, 2014

56°41.860'N, 109°58.600'W Elevation 304 m pH 7.52, T 18.7 °C

Depression in meadow with standing water, no visible flow, clear, sunny. Willows, cattails, grasses, plumed false Solomon seal, patches of mosses in water along with detritus on bottom. This was the only such extensive wet meadow we saw on the trip and it was in the Western Sedimentation Basin, with the river now in a wide valley with wooded ridges on either side of the valley. No outcrops or boulders and the sandy benches were quite infrequent. Shrubs and trees were bigger and more diverse, with soil much deeper (black, a lot of organic material before reaching clay-sand). Grass was 1–1.5 m tall, thick, meadow rue. Many pools of water in the entire area.

Sample #9, pool near Greentree Provincial Campground (Fig. 41) June 24, 2014

56°39.233'N, 110°57.320'W Elevation 256 m pH 7.52, T 12.7 °C

In woods (birch, balsam poplar, alder, balsam fir), standing water, no obvious flow, shady. Immediate area around this was pretty flat. Dwarf raspberry, currants, grasses, horsetails. Brown and green algae blobs on surface, bottom has muck and detritus.

The following account is taken from the field notes of Beverly Boynton:

Sampling was done while on a 28-day canoe trip on the Coppermine River (Fig. 1), from Point Lake near the headwaters, to its mouth in Coronation Gulf of the Arctic Ocean, about 450 river kilometres. All samples were from fresh water, none closer to the Arctic Ocean than about 10 km; no samples were taken from the Coppermine River itself. Only sample #1 was from Northwest Territories; the rest are from Nunavut, Canada.

The trip began in the upper Coppermine, which is a system of lakes on Arctic tundra, above the treeline. At Redrock Lake, the Coppermine leaves the tundra to enter white spruce forest with willow and birch shrubs. Treeline and its transition zone follow the protected river valley up to the Coppermine Mountains, though tundra predominates in places beyond the river valley. At Big Bend, the trees thin and become shorter. Past the Coppermine Mountains, the terrain is predominantly tundra vegetation of grasses and sedges, lichens, willows and smaller birch shrubs.

The entire trip was on the Canadian Shield, though this Precambrian granitic rock was not always visible due to postglacial till and sediment deposition. A huge glacial lake, Lake Coppermine, formed during deglaciation when a lobe of the ice sheet blocked the Coppermine’s outlet to the sea. This lake extended from Fairy River to Rocky Defile and has left behind lake sediments of marl. Further downriver, the Coppermine cuts through sandstone, limestone and dolomite, forming gorges. The river then goes through the Muskox Intrusion, which was formed during the Proterozoic from mantle plumes. This is one of the globe’s largest basalt flood plains and consists of rock types such as gabbro, which is the rock type from Escape Rapids to Coronation Gulf (Dredge 2001).

Place names were non-existent, so descriptive terms are used here.

Sample #1, grassy meadow at Wolf Camp (Fig. 42) July 20, 2015

Figures 42–49. 

Collection sites along the Coppermine River corridor 42 Site 1 (6824) 43, 44 Site 2 (6825) 45, 46 Site 3 (6826) 47, 48 Site 4 (6827) 49 Site 5 (6828). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

65.8268°N, 114.3896°W Elevation 350 m pH 8.18, T 12 °C

Standing water, about 10 m × 5 m, in a large, sunny grassy meadow with a few willows. About 100 m from river. No visible surface inlet/outlet. Beyond the meadow, there is a small ridge with granitic bedrock outcrops. Water is clear, with bottom of Sphagnum moss. Surrounded by red and green moss, grasses, no forbs. Sample: surface water, Sphagnum squeeze, scraped slimy stick.

Sample #2, Coppermine tributary at marl bluff (Figs 43, 44) July 24, 2015

66.3652°N, 114.4949°W Elevation 281 m pH 8.38, T 19.2 °C

Small, sluggish tributary of Coppermine River, about 105 m above the confluence. Sunny area with grey clay on bottom and on stream bank (strong reaction to HCl). Some cotton grass, grasses, no forbs; further away are white spruce, birch shrubs, buffalo berry, marl bluffs. Water is clear, with a small fish. Sample: surface water, superficial bottom sediment, squeezed grass roots, scraped branch and twig.

Sample #3, small lake at Orchid Camp (Figs 45, 46) July 26, 2015

66.7441°N, 115.3878°W Elevation 282 m pH 8.6, T 22.4 °C

Multiple little lakes about 113 m from Coppermine. Sunny, maybe 1 m deep, Sphagnum moss, surrounded by cotton grass, mosses, birch shrubs, white spruce. In a low area, no obvious surface inlet/outlet. Twinflowers, squirrel egg yellow orchid and yellow lady’s slipper orchid nearby.

Sample #4, small stream at Bear Skull Camp (Figs 47, 48) July 28, 2015

66.8800°N, 116.3331°W Elevation 288 m pH 7.5, T 17.4 °C

Small meandering stream of still water in large, sunny, hummocky meadow between two long sandy eskers. Maybe 0.6 m deep, Sphagnum and aquatic grasses on bottom. Sample: surface water, grass root squeeze, scraped a branch.

Sample #5, tundra pool (Fig. 49) July 30, 2015

67.2461°N, 116.3628°W Elevation 489 m pH 8.1, T 17.2 °C

Sunny area of hummocks with pools of standing water, surrounded by sedges, grasses, no forbs, rocky. Maybe 0.3 m deep, muddy bottom with decaying vegetation. Clear water, no surface inlet/outlet noted. Split a rock, good reaction from HCl; green specks on split surface may have been copper ore. About 7 km from Coppermine River.

Sample #6, Red Sand Lake (Fig. 50) July 30, 2015

Figures 50–57. 

Collection sites along the Coppermine River corridor 50 Site 6 (6829) 51 Site 7 (6830) 52, 53 Site 8 (6831) 54, 55 Site 9 (6832) 56, 57 Site 10 (6833). Note mats of iron-oxidising bacteria in Figs 50, 53, 56, 57. Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

67.2528°N, 116.3602°W Elevation 472 m pH 8.0, T 20.5 °C

Lake 6.9 km from Coppermine. Clear water with surface algae, sunny, about 15 cm deep at edge. Surrounded by grasses, sedges, no forbs. Sample: surface water, poor squeeze of hard-to-pull grasses, scraped a slimy rock. Bottom with reddish-brown colour [iron-oxidizing bacteria?].

Sample #7, September Mountains Lake (Fig. 51) August 1, 2015

67.1936°N, 115.7955°W Elevation 440 m pH 8.3, T 17.4 °C

Lake with clear water, sunny. Sphagnum moss and mud on bottom, surrounded by aquatic grasses. About 3.7 km from Coppermine. Sample: surface water, grass squeeze, no sticks or accessible stones to scrape.

Sample #8, Coppermine Mountains Lake (Figs 52, 53) August 3, 2015

67.3350°N, 115.7965°W Elevation 435 m pH 8.2, T 14.8 °C

Small lake with clear water, surrounded by aquatic grasses, sedges. Bottom with reddish-brown algae-like growth [iron-oxidising bacteria?]. About 4 km from Coppermine. Sample: surface water, squeezed grass roots, scraped rocks from bottom.

Sample #9, Escape Rapids Lake (Figs 54, 55) August 6, 2015

67.6181°N, 115.4367°W Elevation 145 m pH 6.76, T 18 °C

Moderately large lake in tundra in wet, hummocky area. No definite inlet, outlet. This is now in the area of post-glacial marine sedimentation from sea level changes; fresh water sample may be influenced by marine sediments. Clear water, sunny, aquatic plants, grasses, sedges, willows, marsh cinquefoils. Mud and algae on bottom. Sample is from a quiet backwater on a very windy day. Sample: surface water, plant squeeze, no rocks or sticks to scrape.

Sample #10, Bloody Falls Tundra Lake (Figs 56, 57) August 8, 2015

67.7657°N, 115.3817°W Elevation 72 m pH 8.17, T 11.3 °C One of many small lakes in area of tundra and hummocks. Red sand, rocks, and algae [iron-oxidising bacteria?] on bottom. Clear water, sunny, some insects in water. Grasses, sedges, willows surround the lake. Sample: surface water, grass squeeze, scraped non-slimy rock.

The following account is taken from the field notes of Beverly Boynton:

Sampling was done while on a 26-day canoe trip that went from a lake on the Baillie River (a main tributary of the Back River), to the Baillie’s confluence with the Back River, then down the Back River, passing through Pelly Lake and ending on Mission Island in Upper Garry Lake, about 445 river km from our starting point (Fig. 1). Elevation at our put-in on the Baillie was 284 m, about 168 m near the confluence of the Baillie and Back Rivers (a 120 m drop over about 185 km), then the Back essentially becomes flatwater, with an elevation at our take out on Mission Island of 148 m (a drop of only 20 m over the final 260 km). All samples are fresh water from Nunavut.

The sampling area is subarctic tundra on the Canadian Shield, with continuous permafrost and a thin active layer of reportedly acidic soil. There are some areas of granitic outcrops, but most of the river corridor is covered with extensive deposits from de-glaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, including sandy eskers, large sand flats and areas of mostly sorted till and sediments. In addition, there are extensive areas of peat, with sphagnum moss and other mosses. Lichen species were fairly ubiquitous. The area is well above the treeline, except for one small area on the Baillie that has a relic stand of white spruce. The shrubs include dwarf birch, small willow species, red alder and various Ericaceae species. Other plants included grasses, sedges and the expected flora for subarctic bogs, fens and uplands.

Annual precipitation is low, making this area a polar desert, but during summer, snow melt and thawing of the active layer results in waterlogged soil and a network of lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands. Throughout the collection area were numerous ponds, pools of standing water, wet peatlands and wet to moist areas of hummocks and patterned ground, in addition to dry uplands.

From local reports, May and June were rainy months, at least in Yellowknife, about 480 km to the west of our put-in. The Back clearly had high waters, as most dry riverbeds noted on maps were covered with water. The Back drains a huge area and, being a lowlands river on permafrost, the accumulated water is slow to discharge into the Arctic Ocean. We had a number of high wind days that kept us from paddling and a few periods of rain.

Place names are my own descriptive terms, sometimes adding nearby names from Canadian maps.

Sample #1, pond in wetland near the Baillie River (Figs 58, 59) July 4, 2016

Figures 58–63. 

Collection sites along the Baillie and Back River corridors 58, 59 Site 1 (6856) 60 Site 2 (6857) 61 Site 3 (6858) 62 Site 4 (6859) 63 Site 5 (6860). Note microbial mat of red iron-oxidising bacteria in 59 Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

64°53.020'N, 105°46.733'W Elevation 239 m pH 7.9, T 22 °C

A small, shallow, sunny tundra pool, about 10 m by 5 m, in a large wetland with plenty of mosquitoes, situated on a terrace above the Baillie River. No surface inlet or outlet seen. Clear water, red-brown algae and sediments [iron-oxidising bacteria] on bottom. Surrounding vegetation includes dwarf birch, willow, Labrador tea, grass, sedges. Further away from river and pond is a ridge with granitic outcrops. Sample: surface water, grass and algae squeeze, scraped stick.

Sample #2, pond near Merganser Camp off the Baillie River (Fig. 60) July 6, 2016

64°53.118'N, 105°04.829'W Elevation 214 m pH 7.15, T 18.6 °C

Tundra pond in a large, flat, sunny area of moist hummocks with no standing water between them. No surface inlet or outlet seen. Clear water, brown algae and sediments on bottom. Surrounding vegetation includes dwarf birch, willow, Labrador tea, cloudberry, mountain avens, pink and yellow louseworts, bog rosemary, grass, and sedges including cotton grass. Further away from the river and pond is a ridge with granitic outcrops. Sample: surface water, squeezed vegetation and scrape.

Sample #3, backwater on the Baillie (Fig. 61) July 8, 2016

64°57.726'N, 104°35.904'W Elevation 198 m pH 7.1, T 19.4 °C

Still backwater in sunny area on the Baillie River, in an area of flooding. Clear water, river bottom of sand and fine silt, submerged aquatic plants. Sand and boulders on shoreline, but no plants. Sample: surface water, rooted submerged plant squeeze, scraped rock.

Sample #4, pond near Mud Beach Camp off the Back (Fig. 62) July 11, 2016

65°57.726'N, 103°35.828'W Elevation unknown pH 6.4, T 23.9 °C

Tundra pond in sunny area. Surrounding vegetation includes willow, Labrador tea, yellow lousewort, bog rosemary, aquatic grasses, sedges, mosses.

Sample #5, pond near Hill Camp off the Back (Fig. 63) July 12, 2016

65°23.521'N, 103°23.291'W Elevation 189 m pH 6.2, T 22.7 °C

Tundra pond in sunny area, with short grasses, forbs and shrubs further from the pond. Clear water, bottom with red-coloured sediments [probably colonies of iron-oxidising bacteria]. Vegetation surrounding the pond includes dwarf birch, willow, Labrador tea, yellow lousewort, bog rosemary, cloudberry, mosses. Sample taken on windy day from lee end.

Sample #6, pool near Inuksuk Camp off the Back (Fig. 64) July 14, 2016

Figures 64–68. 

Collection sites along the Baillie and Back River corridors 64 Site 6 (6861) 65 Site 7 (6862) 66 Site 8 (6863) 67, 68 Site 9 (6864). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

65°36.231'N, 102°40.844'W Elevation 205 m pH 6.44, T 18.7 °C

Small pool of standing water in area of moist hummocks, atop a bedrock granite ridge. Clear water, grasses and mosses in water and on bottom (intermittent standing water). Surrounding vegetation includes dwarf birch, Labrador tea, alpine azalea, cloudberry, sedges, cottongrass, mosses, lichens. Sample: surface water, squeezed aquatic grasses.

Sample #7, eddy on the Back River (Fig. 65) July 19, 2016

65°54.663'N, 101°51.659'W Elevation 156 m pH 7.28, T 13.6 °C

Sunny area in a backwater of the Back River. Clear water, fine silt bottom. Aquatic plants in water. Sample: surface water, squeeze submerged roots/stems, difficult scrape of submerged rock.

Sample #8, wetland near Pelly Monument Camp at Pelly Lake (Fig. 66) July 20, 2016

65°56.431'N, 101°26.474'W Elevation 158 m pH 7.17, T 16.2 °C

Sunny area of patterned ground, filled with clear standing water. Vegetation includes aquatic plants, grasses, mosses, a few forbs, but no shrubs. Much goose scat, feathers, many molting geese ran off upon our arrival. Sample: surface water, squeezed submerged roots.

Sample #9, pond on tundra near Cabin Camp (Figs 67, 68) July 22, 2016

Figures 69–72. 

Collection sites along the Baillie and Back River corridors 69, 70 Site 10 (6865) 71, 72 Site 11 (6866). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

65°53.784'N, 101°02.873'W Elevation 166 m pH 6.80, T, 15.7 °C

Long tundra pond in a swath of moist hummocks with cottongrass, situated between two granite ridges. Water possibly has channels that connect with Pelly Lake. Sunny, sediments and algae on bottom. Vegetation includes a few dwarf birch, Labrador tea, cottongrass, grass, moss. Many mosquitoes, a pair of red-necked phalaropes and snow buntings flew by. Sample: surface water, plant squeeze, rock scrape.

Sample #10, Pelly Cove wetland (Figs 69, 70) July 24, 2016

65°53.931'N, 101°02.134'W Elevation 179 m pH 6.9, T 11.6 °C

Sunny area of clear water, bottom with sediments and Sphagnum moss, algae, surrounded by granite rocks. Vegetation includes Labrador tea, mountain cranberry, bog rosemary, grasses and mosses.

Sample #11, Mission Island rivulet (Figs 71, 72) July 26, 2016

65°54.380'N, 100°46.266'W Elevation 166 m pH 6.6, T 13.5 °C

Sample from pool of clear still water, partly shaded by willows, in small creek flowing down a broad swale between two tundra ridges. Bottom with algae, sediments, mosses. Surrounding vegetation includes willow, Potentilla, grass, moss. Sample: surface water, grass squeeze, scraped stick.

The following account is taken from the field notes of Beverly Boynton:

Sampling was done while on a 27-day, 300-km canoe trip in Nunavut, from the headwaters of the Hood River to the north end of the peninsula dividing the Hood River mouth in Arctic Sound from Baillie Bay (both are in Bathurst Inlet of Coronation Gulf of the Arctic Ocean). Elevation at our put-in is 414 m and the mouth of the Hood is at sea level.

The Hood River is on the Central Continental Arctic portion of North America, on the Precambrian Canadian Shield. It lies between the Contwoyto Plateau to the south (a 450 m high plateau of gently rolling drift) and the Tree River uplands to the north and west (a lower, dissected granite plateau of smooth rock-knob hills with deep valleys) and flows through isolated, rugged tundra. For most of its length, the Hood is less than 150 km south of Coronation Gulf of the Arctic Ocean as it runs west to east. There are many areas of Precambrian granitic outcrops, but much of the surface along the river corridor is covered with extensive deposits from de-glaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, with areas of sorted and unsorted till and sediment, including sandy eskers, sand, mud and clay flats.

The lower half of the Hood has some metamorphic rocks of quartzite and slate, with clay tills. The Wilberforce Hills to the east are the dissected edge of the Contwoyto Plateau. About 50 km from its mouth, the Hood turns abruptly to the north in its run to the coast. The river then lies in a broad flood plain with evidence of previous salt-water incursions from when sea levels were higher.

Bathurst Inlet is a physiographic division of the Shield, with a major NNE to SSW fault forming the boundary between the uplands and the Coronation Gulf Lowlands. It is a complex submerged valley, a 200 km-long extension of the Coronation Gulf lowlands penetrating the Shield, with west-dipping diabase and basalt sills, often overlying basalt. The Queen Maud Lowlands lie to the east of the Inlet.

The river is all above the Arctic Circle, well above the treeline, with continuous permafrost and a thin active layer of soil. Lichen species were ubiquitous as were Ericaceae spp., dwarf birch, willow, alder, sedges and grasses. Mosses seemed less extensive than seen on other barren grounds trips; we identified 50 species of arctic wildflowers.

Unfortunately, strong headwinds prevented us from paddling to the actual estuary of the Hood in Arctic Sound and, even more disappointing, a hike to the tip of the peninsula ended on tall undercut bluffs that prevented a descent to the ocean at the northernmost point. For this reason, the final Hood River sample was about 8 km upstream from Arctic Sound and the first Bathurst Inlet sample (on east side of the peninsula) was perhaps half a mile to the south of the headlands of the peninsula.

The Hood River was very low this season, presumably due to low winter snow, an early snow and ice meltoff and lack of rain. Compared to a personal account by friends who paddled the river in 2013 and found it to be low water, this year the river was much lower.

There is considerable research being done on the arctic freshwater system in the face of climate change. Significant changes include rising surface air temperatures, warming permafrost and shrub encroachment on the northern tundra. Storage and cycling of fresh water on land has changed along with precipitation, river discharge, lake abundance and size and soil moisture.

In total, 16 samples of benthic diatoms were collected from water bodies along the Hood River corridor. (There is no sample #10.) The following field notes describe the sampling sites. Datum is WGS84, coordinates are latitude-longitude in degrees and decimal minutes; elevation is in metres. Place names are my own (BB) descriptive terms, sometimes adding nearby names from Canadian maps.

Sample #1, lake near headwaters of the Hood River (Figs 73, 74) July 2, 2017

Figures 73–78. 

Collection sites along the Hood River corridor 73, 74 Site 1 (6898) 75 Site 2 (6899) 76 Site 3 (6900) 77, 78 Site 4 (6901). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

66°34.513'N, 112°52.756'W Elevation 426 m pH 8.18, T 18.2 °C

Lake in dry uplands with no defined inlet/outlet, but surrounded by various low ridges with granite bedrock. Scrape was on rock with leafy black algae; water was clear but with glops of gold/brown floating on surface. Usual dwarf birch, Ericaceae, forbs mosses, lichens.

Sample #2, lake near Windy Point Camp, headwaters of the Hood River (Fig. 75) July 4, 2017

66°36.929'N, 112°28.089'W Elevation 415 m pH 5.72, T 15.9 °C

Lake in dry uplands with granite outcrops and boulders, in a valley between two ridges. Dwarf birch, sedges, bog rosemary, Labrador tea, cottongrass, mountain cranberry, lichens and mosses. Brown sediments and algae on bottom.

Sample #3, flowing stream (Fig. 76) Elevation unknown July 4, 2017

66°36.929'N, 112°28.089'W (coordinates approximate) pH 5.95, T 11.1 °C

Briskly flowing stream with bed of small granite boulders, sunny with some shade from banks. Sample is from a flat area of stream that is maybe an area of springs (the stream flows down a pretty good gradient for the area). Sample is from a quiet side pool. Green mosses, some sedges, tall willows.

Sample #4, moist hummocks (Figs 77, 78) July 8, 2017

66°39.164'N, 111°53.829'W Elevation 380 m pH 5.7, T 12.2 °C

Red moss, Vaccinium, scattered dwarf birch and Labrador tea. The tundra in general seems very dry this season. Sample was just an ooze in the hummocks.

Sample #5, large lake with short outlet to Hood (Figs 79, 80) July 8, 2017

Figures 79–84. 

Collection sites along the Hood River corridor 79, 80 Site 5 (6902) 81, 82 Site 6 (6903) 83, 84 Site 7 (6904). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

66°38.165'N, 111°52.434'W Elevation 376 m pH 6.73, T 20.6 °C

Sample #6, wet meadow near Kapolak Camp (Figs 81, 82) July 11, 2017

66°37.970'N, 111°26.082'W Elevation 372 m pH 5.9, T 13.1 °C

Sedges, mosses, bottom with sediments and brown moss, sunny. In area of dwarf birch, Labrador tea.

Sample #7, Wright River (Figs 83, 84) July 15, 2017

66°50.173'N, 110°23.237'W Elevation 285 m pH 7.4, T 16.9 °C

Quiet pool on edge Wright River, a major tributary to the Hood River. Water clear, sunny, brown algae on rocks, no vegetation in water, the usual dwarf birch and tundra vegetation.

Sample #8, Wilberforce Hills, lake (Figs 85, 86) July 20, 2017

Figures 85–90. 

Collection sites along the Hood River corridor 85, 86 Site 8 (6905) 87 Site 9 (6906) 88 Site 11 (6907) 89, 90 Site 12 (6908). Photo credits: Beverly Boynton, Raymond White (Fig. 88).

67°03.819'N, 108°40.383'W Elevation 273 m pH 7.24, T 11.8 °C

Large sunny lake with inlet from relatively high hills to the east and short outlet into the Hood River. Granite on shore, dwarf birch, willow, mosses, lichens, sedges, Ericaceae.

Sample #9, Hood River below Wilberforce Falls (Fig. 87) July 22, 2017

67°06.931'N, 108°49.194'W Elevation 35 m pH 6.80, T 15.7 °C

Tiny eddy with sand and gravel bottom, no plants or algae visible.

Sample #10, James River moist meadow (Fig. 88) July 23, 2017

67°12.274'N, 108°48.547'W Elevation 33 m pH 6.28, T 8.4 °C

Sample from standing water in a moist meadow to south of James River, a main tributary of the Hood River. Sedges, clear, sunny.

Sample #11, James River lake (Figs 89, 90) July 23, 2017

67°11.910'N, 108°50.912'W Elevation 236 m pH 7.26, T 13.0 °C

Sample from a moderately large lake that drains into the James River, though drainage was dry. No definite inlet noted, but is in basin of granite ridges. Sunny area, but had started to rain.

Sample #12, Red Sediment Lake (Figs 91, 92) July 27, 2017

Figures 91–97. 

Collection sites along the Hood River corridor 91, 92 Site 13 (6909) 93 Site 14 (6910) 94 Site 15 (6911) 95, 96 Site 16 (6912) 97 Site 17 (6913). Photos credit: Beverly Boynton.

67°23.024'N, 108°51.758'W (coordinates approximate) pH 8.5, T 13.7 °C

Sample from area of tundra on the peninsula that divides the final 8 km of the Hood River and its estuary from Baillie Bay. Dwarf birch, Ericaeae, sedges, cottongrass, heather, cranberry, willow. Includes a benthic sample.

Sample #13, ice wedge (Fig. 93) July 27, 2017

67°23.307'N, 108°51.931'W Elevation 23 m pH 5.9, T 16.1 °C

Moderately large ice wedge with standing water, on tundra of the peninsula that divides the final 8 km of the Hood River and its estuary from Baillie Bay. Dwarf birch, Ericaceae.

Sample #14, Arctic Sound of Bathurst Inlet (Fig. 94) July 27, 2017

67°24.994'N, 108°51.572'W Elevation 0 m pH 6.6, T 13.5 °C

Sample from sandy beach, with moderately strong north winds causing small surf. Area is somewhat south and east from the head of the peninsula that divides the final 8 km of the Hood River and its estuary from Baillie Bay. Tried to get surface water. No plants, sunny.

Sample #15, mare’s tail flooded area, Baillie Bay (Figs 95, 96) July 27, 2017

67°24.752'N, 108°51.423'W Elevation 0 m pH 8.5, T 18.0 °C

Mud flat flooded with water, with mare’s tails, sample from west side of Baillie Bay.

Sample #16, Hood River at last camp (Fig. 97) July 28, 2017

67°22.472'N, 108°53.183'W Elevation 5 m pH 7.14, T 9.6 °C

Sandy shore of Hood River, about 8 km upstream from its mouth in Arctic Sound.