Malpighia glabra L.

Trees, shrubs, subshrubs (erect, monopodial or scandent) or lianas, monoecious, rarely functionally dioecious or androdioecious, perennial; hairs unicellular, foot present, conspicuous or not, 2-branched (malpighiaceous), T-, Y- or V-shaped, rarely acicular or stellate, branches straight, undulate, or curled, surface smooth, rough or spiny (Fig. 2). Roots fibrous or tuberous, generally becoming woody with age. Xylopodium present or not. Branches woody, rarely herbaceous, lenticelate or not. Stipules present, rarely absent, inter- or epipetiolar, minute to expanded, free to connate, pair of stipules free or connate, deciduous or persistent (Fig. 3E–H). Leaves opposite, decussate, rarely verticillate, ternate, subopposite or alternate (Fig. 3A–D), petiolate; petioles short to very long (Fig. 3L–N), circular, plane-convex to canaliculate (Fig. 3I–K) in cross-section, usually glandular (Fig. 3O-S); blades simple, entire, rarely lobed (Fig. 4I–K), usually glandular, margin plane to revolute (Fig. 4O, P), entire, sometimes dentate, crenate or lobulate, glabrous, ciliate or pubescent (Fig. 4I–N). Inflorescences solitary or compound, terminal to axillary, pedunculate, rarely sessile (Fig. 5A); flowers arranged in a 1–multi-flowered cincinnus (Fig. 5B), cincinni opposite to alternate, usually pedunculate (Fig. 5C), rarely sessile, solitary or arranged in 2–5-degrees of ramification into thyrses, corymbs, umbels, or dichasia (Fig. 6); leaves associated with the inflorescences similar to vegetative leaves but reduced in size (Fig. 6D); cincinni bract 1, minute to expanded, plane or concave, persistent, rarely deciduous, glandular or eglandular (Fig. 7A–I); bracteoles 2, opposite or alternate, usually inserted at the apex of peduncles, rarely subapical, medial or basal, minute to expanded, plane or concave, persistent, rarely deciduous, glandular or eglandular (Fig. 7A–I). Flowers chasmogamous, rarely cleistogamous, bisexual, rarely unisexual, zygomorphic, rarely actinomorphic, hypogynous, rarely perigynous (Fig. 7Q); pedicel well-developed, rarely absent or inconspicuous, straight, rarely circinate (Fig. 7D–F); sepals 5(–7), free to connate at base, imbricate in bud, rarely valvate, erect, rarely deflexed, apex erect to revolute, persistent in fruit, usually not accrescent in fruit, rarely accrescent, abaxially (0–)1–2(–many)-glandular, sometimes the anterior sepal eglandular, rarely all sepals eglandular (Fig. 7J–L), glands multicellular, usually sessile (Fig. 8C), rarely pedunculate (Fig. 8C), secreting oil (Fig. 8B), rarely nectar (Fig. 8A); petals 5(–7), free, imbricate in bud, rarely valvate, clawed, patent (Fig. 8O) or deflexed (Fig. 8J), usually yellow (Fig. 8F–J), sometimes white (Fig. 8C, E, K), pink (Fig. 8A, L, Y), orange (Fig. 8M) or red (Fig. 8T), rarely green, lilac (Fig. 8Z) or purple, usually changing colour after pollination, the posterior petal usually differing from the 4 lateral ones in size, colour, shape and/or presence of glands, limb generally crumpled in bud, plane, concave or cucullate at anthesis, margin entire (Fig. 8U), erose (Fig. 8V), denticulate (Fig. 8X), fimbriate (Fig. 8W), or glandular-fimbriate (Fig. 8Y); androecium with (3–5–6–)10 stamens (Fig. 9D–G), in two whorls, fertile stamens (2–6–)10 (Fig. 9E), staminodes 0(–2–5; Fig. 9F, G), filaments free (Fig. 9G) or connate (Fig. 9D, E) at base, rarely connate up to the middle, short to long, glabrous (Fig. 9E), rarely pubescent (Fig. 9F), homo- (Fig. 9E) or heteromorphic (Fig. 9D), anthers basifixed (Fig. 9A), connectives minute or expanded (Fig. 9A, B), usually glandular (secreting non-volatile oils, rarely essential oils; Fig. 9B), with or without an apical projection, glabrous (Fig. 9E) to pubescent (Fig. 9D), thecae 2, parallel, rarely divergent at base and connivant at apex, apex free, rarely confluent, rimose (Fig. 9A), rarely poricidal; gynoecium superior, (1–2–)3-carpelate (Fig. 9H), all fertile, rarely 1 abortive, carpels syncarpic, rarely basally syncarpic and apically apocarpic, locules 1-ovulate, ovules pendulous, anatropous, styles (1–2–)3 (Fig. 9L, M), free, rarely connate, basal, lateral, subapical or apical, straight (Fig. 9L), curved (Fig. 9O) or lyrate (Fig. 9N, P), apex subulate (Fig. 9K), cylindrical (Fig. 9L), laterally flattened, truncate (Fig. 9J) or uncinate (Fig. 9I), rarely expanded (Fig. 9N, P), stigmas terminal (Fig. 9L, M) or lateral (i.e., facing the centre of the flower or the posterior petal; Fig. 9I, N, P), subulate (Fig. 9K), punctiform (Fig. 9K), capitate (Fig. 9L) or crateriform (Fig. 9I). Fruits dry (Fig. 10O–W) or fleshy (Fig. 10A–N), schizocarps (Fig. 10O–W), nuts (Fig. 10B–D) or drupes (Fig. 10A, E–N), glabrous or pubescent, mericarps (1–2–)3, indehiscent or splitting at maturity, smooth (Fig. 10O–S), setose (Fig. 10T–W), or winged (Fig. 11A–M), when winged mericarps with 1 dorsal (Fig. 11A–E) and/or 1–several lateral (Fig. 11F–M) wings, free (Fig. 11F–H, J–M) or connate (Fig. 11I). Seeds 1 per locule (Fig. 10A), globose or ovoid (Fig. 10A), smooth (Fig. 10A) to rugose, without endosperm; embryo curved, bent or spiralled. Chromosome number n = 6–10.

Figure 2. 

Line drawings and scanning electron micrographs of common types of malpighiaceous hairs A T-shaped with a short base (i.e., foot) B T-shaped with a long base C T-shaped with a very reduced base and branches with spiked cell wall D T-shaped with a very reduced base and branches with smooth cell wall E Y-shaped with a long base and two equally long branches F Y-shaped with a long base, one long and one very reduced branch G Y-shaped with a very reduced base H T-shaped with reduced base and laterally flattened (i.e., scaly) I, J detail of a velutine indumentum comprising Y-shaped hairs K, L detail of a tomentose indumentum comprising T-shaped hairs with long bases M, N detail of a sericeous indumentum comprising T-shaped hairs with very reduced bases O detail of the spikes on the cell wall of a hair branch P detail of the rugae on the cell wall of a hair branch (all line drawings and SEMs by R.F. Almeida).

Figure 3. 

Phyllotaxis, stipules, and petioles of Malpighiaceae A branch with opposite leaves of Bronwenia megaptera B branch with decussate leaves of Verrucularina glaucophylla C branch with alternate leaves of Stigmaphyllon angustilobum D branch with verticillate leaves of Pterandra pyroidea E interpetiolar stipules of Mascagnia cordifolia F epipetiolar stipules of Byrsonima intermedia G free stipules of Hiraea hatschbachii H connate stipules of Peixotoa catarinensis I transverse section of a circular petiole J transverse section of a plane-convex petiole K transverse section of a canaliculate petiole L leaf with very reduced petiole of Byrsonima basiloba M leaf with short petiole of Banisteriopsis adenopoda N leaf with long petiole of Stigmaphyllon caatingicola O alternate glands on the petiole of Banisteriopsis membranifolia P opposite to alternate glands on the petiole of Schwannia mediterranea Q subopposite glands on the petiole of Banisteriopsis membranifolia R discoid and sessile gland of Banisteriopsis laevifolia S cupuliform and stalked glands of Banisteriopsis adenopoda (line drawings and photographs A–C, G, I–K, L–O, Q–S by R.F. Almeida; D by C. Silva, E, F, H, P by M.O.O. Pellegrini).

Figure 4. 

Leaf blades of Malpighiaceae A leaf with sagittate base of Stigmaphyllon ciliatum B leaf with rounded base of Banisteriopsis adenopoda C leaf with cordate base of Stigmaphyllon blanchetii D leaf with cuneate base of Banisteriopsis vernoniifolia E leaf with obtuse base of Stigmaphyllon paralias F leaf with truncate base of Stigmaphyllon gayanum G leaf with oblique base of Stigmaphyllon lanceolatum H leaf with attenuate base of Acmanthera minima I leaf with entire margin of Stigmaphyllon caatingicola J leaf with 3-lobed margin of Stigmaphyllon caatingicola K leaf with 5-lobed margin of Stigmaphyllon angustilobum L leaf with crenate margin of Stigmaphyllon crenatum M leaf with ciliate margin of Stigmaphyllon ciliatum N leaf with dentate margin of Stigmaphyllon vitifolium O leaf with plane blade margin of Banisteriopsis membranifolia P leaf with revolute blade margin of Verrucularina glaucophylla Q rounded leaf apex of Tetrapterys phlomoides R mucronate leaf apex of Banisteriopsis magdalenensis S emarginate leaf apex of Hiraea cuiabensis T cuspidate leaf apex of Banisteriopsis adenopoda U acuminate leaf apex of Mamedea harleyi V acute leaf apex of Banisteriopsis membranifolia (photographs A–D, F, G, I, L, O, P, T–V by R.F. Almeida; E, M by M.O.O. Pellegrini; H by F. Farronay, Q by G.A. Dettke, N by A.C. Dal Col, R by C. Baez, S by I.L. Morais).

Figure 5. 

Inflorescence architecture of Malpighiaceae A inflorescence evolution in Malpighiaceae according to Anderson (1981) B 1-flowered cincinnus of Niedenzuella lasiandra C Thyrse of 1-flowered cincinni of Niedenzuella lasiandra (line drawings modified from Anderson 1981; photographs A modified from Anderson 1981; B, C by M.O.O. Pellegrini).

Figure 6. 

Compound inflorescences of Malpighiaceae A thyrse of 1-flowered cincinni of Byrsonima sericea B corymb of 1-flowered cincinni of Mascagnia cordifolia C umbel of 1-flowered cincinni of Banisteriopsis argyrophylla D line drawing of an inflorescence of Stigmaphyllon angustilobum showing 1-flowered cincinni arranged in umbels (1^st order inflorescence), arranged in dichasia (2^nd order inflorescence), arranged in a thyrse (3^rd order inflorescence) E photograph of the inflorescence branch of Stigmaphyllon angustilobum (photographs B, C by M.O.O. Pellegrini; A, E by R.F. Almeida; line drawing D by K. Souza).

Figure 7. 

Flowers of Malpighiaceae A side view of the flower of Amorimia coriacea showing the cincinnus peduncle with a bract at base and two bracteoles at apex B detail of the 2-glandular bracteoles of Glicophyllum cardiophyllum C details of the glandular margin of the bracteole of Christianella multiglandulosa D bracteoles of Mezia araujoi concealing the floral bud at pre-anthesis (floral pedicel is absent) E floral bud of Niedenzuella multiglandulosa, showing a very short peduncle with a bract at base and two bracteoles at apex F flower of Banisteriopsis laevifolia showing pedicel with bract and bracteoles at base (peduncle absent) G plane and patent bract and bracteoles of Alicia anisopetala H cucullate bract and bracteoles of Dicella bracteosa I deflexed bract and bracteoles of Dicella nucifera J eglandular sepals concealing petals at pre-anthesis in Thryallis longifolia K 1-glandular calyx of Hiptage benghalensis L 10-glandular calyx of Camarea axillaris M 8-glandular calyx of Christianella multiglandulosa showing the multi-glandular margin of sepals N erect sepals of Galphimia australis O revolute apex of sepals of Byrsonima basiloba P revolute and reflexed sepals of Thryallis longifolia Q floral diagram of a Malpighiaceae flower with sepals in green, sepal glands in red, lateral petals in yellow, posterior petal in brown, androecium in blue (connectives) and white (pollen sacs), and gynoecium in pink (diagram and photographs B, E, F, H, K, L, N, O, Q by R.F. Almeida; A–D, G, M by M.O.O. Pellegrini; I by Amaury Jr.; J, P by J.V. Santos).

Figure 8. 

Sepals, glands, and petals of Malpighiaceae flowers A sepals with rounded apex of Hiptage benghalensis and sessile sepal gland B sepals with acute apex of Christianella multiglandulosa and sessile sepal glands C sepals with acute apex of Byrsonima gardneriana and sessile sepal glands D stalked sepal glands of Heladena multiflora E white petals of Acmanthera latifolia F pale yellow glands of Bunchosia glandulifera G yellow glands of Mcvaughia sergipana H pale green glands of Bronwenia megaptera I green glands of Camarea axillaris J yellow and deflexed petals of Byrsonima sericea K white glands of Acmanthera parviflora L pink glands of Heteropterys rubiginosa M brown glands of Amorimia pellegrinii N red glands of Niedenzuella poeppigiana O yellow and patent petals of Ptilochaeta bahiensis P oval petal limb of Galphimia gracilis Q elliptic petal limb of Heteropterys oberdanii R obovate petal limb of Bronwenia megaptera S pubescent petal surface of Diplopterys bahiana T orange-red petals of Tetrapterys phlomoides U entire margin of the petal of Heteropterys oberdanii V erose margin of the petal of Bronwenia megaptera W fimbriate margin of the petal of Schwannia schwannioides X dentate margin of the petal of Peixotoa hispidula Y glandular-fimbriate margin of the petal of Alicia anisopetala Z lilac petals of Mascagnia lilacina (A, C, F–H, I, J, L–S, U–W by R.F. Almeida; B, N, T, Y by M.O.O. Pellegrini; D by A. Francener; E by R. Goldenberg; Z by O.J.A. Ayala).

Figure 9. 

Androecium and gynoecium of Malpighiaceae A stamen of Banisteriopsis multifoliolata showing filament in green, anther in orange, glandular connective in blue, and pollen sacs in yellow B scanning electron micrograph of an anther of Banisteriopsis multifoliolata C SEM of a pollen grain of Banisteriopsis multifoliolata showing colpi in blue and endoaperture in red D heteromorphic stamen ring with 10 fertile stamens of Banisteriopsis multifoliolata E homomorphic stamen ring of Bronwenia megaptera with 10 fertile stamens F heteromorphic stamen ring of Peixotoa hispidula showing 5 fertile stamens and 5 staminodes in yellow G 6 fertile and free stamens of Schwannia hexandra H gynoecium of Banisteriopsis multifoliolata showing ovary in lilac, styles in blue and stigmas in yellow I uncinate apex of styles of Amorimia septentrionalis J truncate style apex of Amorimia rigida K subulate apex of style of Byrsonima sericea L 3 parallel and erect styles of Bronwenia megaptera M single curved style of Schwannia hexandra N 3 divergent styles of Stigmaphyllon blanchetii with foliate apices O 3 erect, slightly curved, and pubescent styles of Diplopterys lutea P 3 divergent styles of Stigmaphyllon lalandianum with reduced foliate apices Q 3 divergent styles of Stigmaphyllon glabrum without foliate apex (all line drawings by K. Souza; SEMs by R.F. Almeida; all scales: 1 mm, except for the pollen grain: 10 µm).

Figure 10. 

Types of fleshy fruits, nuts, and smooth to setose schizocarpic fruits in Malpighiaceae A transversely sliced drupe of Bunchosia maritima showing seeds B transversely sliced nut of Dicella nucifera showing the seed C nuts of Dicella bracteosa D nuts of Dicella macroptera E green drupe of Byrsonima blanchetiana F cream-coloured drupe of Byrsonima ligustrifolia G green drupe of Byrsonima melanocarpa with concrescent sepals H orange drupe of Bunchosia glandulifera I orange drupe of Bunchosia maritima J red drupe of Malpighia glabra K reddish-orange drupe of Malpighia mexicana L green drupe of Malpighia fucata M green and twisted drupe of Mcvaughia sergipana N striated drupe of Burdachia prismatocarpa O smooth mericarp of Heladena multiflora P smooth mericarp of Galphimia gracilis Q smooth and immature mericarp of Verrucularina glaucophylla R green and smooth mericarps of Acmanthera latifolia S smooth mericarps of Thryallis longifolia with concrescent sepals T setose mericarps of Tricomaria usillo U setose mericarps of Lasiocarpus ferrugineus V setose mericarp of Camarea axillaris W setose mericarp of Echinopterys eglandulosa (photographs A, B by Amaury Jr.; C, D by A. Assis; E, H, I, M, Q, V by R.F. Almeida; F by S.E. Martins; G by N. Bigio; J by P. Acevedo-Rodriguez; K, L by M.R. Pace; N by L.S.B. Calazans; O by A. Francener; P by M.O.O. Pellegrini; R by R. Goldenberg; S by J.V. Santos; T by I. Specogna; U by A. Nuno; W by S. Carnaham).

Figure 11. 

Types of winged schizocarpic fruits in Malpighiaceae A single dorsal winged mericarp of Diplopterys pubipetala showing lateral wings B detail of part of the winged mericarp of Banisteriopsis argyrophylla C, D 1 dorsal winged mericarp(s) of Heteropterys byrsonimifolia E winged mericarp of Peixotoa catharinensis showing lateral winglets F winged mericarp of Amorimia candidae with two lateral wings more developed than the reduced dorsal wing G winged mericarp of Lophopterys floribunda H winged mericarp of Carolus chasei with two lateral wings more developed (dorsal wing absent) I winged mericarp of Mascagnia sepium with 1 lateral orbicular wing J winged mericarp of Tetrapterys phlomoides with 4 free, lateral wings (superior ones longer, inferior ones shorter) K winged mericarp of Glicophyllum cardiophyllum with 4 free, lateral wings (superior ones shorter, inferior ones longer) L winged mericarp of Niedenzuella acutifolia with 4 free, equalling lateral wings M winged mericarp of Hiptage benghalensis with three free, lateral wings more developed (photographs A by A. Popovkin; B, E, I, J by M.O.O. Pellegrini; C, D, F, H, K, L by R.F. Almeida; G by G. Shimizu; M by G. Cahyadi).

Malpighiaceae is here circumscribed with two subfamilies, 12 tribes, 72 genera, and 1,499 species accepted (Table 1; Suppl. material 1). From this total, 60 genera and 715 species are currently under some kind of extinction threat (Bachman et al. 2024), representing 84.5% of the accepted genera and 47.82% of the species in our study (Suppl. material 1). Most of Malpighiaceae’s diversity is confined to the American continent, with 55 genera (53 endemic) and 1,274 species (1,272 endemic), and just 15 genera (13 endemic) and 125 species (123 endemic) in Africa, seven genera (four endemic) and 84 species (77 endemic) in Asia, and four genera (all not endemic) and 21 species (19 endemic) in Oceania (Suppl. material 1). Most threatened species are found in the Americas (564 species), with 86 threatened species in Africa, 57 in Asia, and 12 in Oceania (Suppl. material 1). Five African genera, more specifically endemic to Madagascar (i.e., Digoniopterys, Madagasikaria, Microsteira, Philgamia, and Rhynchophora) stand out, with all their current accepted species under some kind of extinction threat (Suppl. material 1). Mcvaughia was the only American genus to present all its species under some kind of extinction threat (Suppl. material 1). Malpighia was the American genus with most species under some kind of extinction threat (Suppl. material 1). Hiptage was the genus with highest number of threatened species in Asia, and Stigmaphyllon was the most threatened in Oceania (Suppl. material 1).

Identification keys for all subfamilies, tribes, and genera are presented, alongside a full morphological description for the proposed new genus, the recircumscription of ten genera accompanied by the needed new combinations, the proposition of several new synonyms, typification of miscellaneous names and notes on conservation, distribution, ecology, and taxonomy up to the genus rank.

Byrsonima Rich. ex Kunth.

Posterior petal eglandular, fertile stamens 10 (occasionally 6–10 in Diacidia), pollen 3-aperturate, zonoaperturate, colporate, styles apex subulate, mericarps smooth (i.e., never winged, or setose), chromosome number n = 6, presence of macrolactams and sulfenyl compounds.

The subfamily Byrsonimoideae currently comprises the original three tribes published by Anderson (1977). However, tribe Byrsonimeae is re-circumscribed to exclude Burdachia, Glandonia and Mcvaughia, which made this tribe paraphyletic and are, thus, placed by us in their own tribe in Malpighioideae. In its new circumscription, Byrsonimoideae comprises nine genera and 243 species (91 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs and trees endemic to the Americas.

Acmanthera (A.Juss.) Griseb.

Stipules absent, leaf veins camptodromous, sepals enclosing petals in buds, carpels free, styles ventrally to subapically inserted on ovaries, presence of diazanapaphthalenes, propargyl-type 1,3-dipolar organic compounds, absence of benzopyrans, lactams, lignam glycosides, pyrimidine nucleosides, pyrimidine nucleotides, saccharolipids, sulfenyl compounds.

Acmanthereae currently comprises only three accepted genera (Acmanthera, Coleostachys, and Pterandra) and 23 species (15 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs, or subshrubs endemic to the Americas (POWO 2024).

Acmanthera latifolia (A.Juss.) Griseb.

Acmanthera currently comprises seven accepted species (four threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs or subshrubs endemic to flooded forests of the Amazon rainforest, South America, and just a single species occurring within the Cerrado biome (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Acmanthera, see Anderson (1980) or Almeida et al. (2020).

Coleostachys genipifolia A.Juss.

Coleostachys is represented by a single species (not threatened; Suppl. material 1) of monopodial shrub endemic to non-flooded forests of the Amazon rainforest, South America (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). A comprehensive taxonomic revision was presented by Almeida and Hall (2016), but the information on type specimens presented by these authors was incomplete. Jussieu (1840) did not specify which specimen is the holotype nor in which herbarium it was deposited, therefore needing the lectotypification presented below.

French Guiana: Cayenne., s.d., Martin s.n. (P-JU barcode P00671745!; isolectotypes: BR barcode BR0000008577450!, F barcode V0062669F!, K barcode K000427026!, MICH barcode MICH1102137!, P barcodes P02428718!, P02428719!, P02428720!, P02428721!, RB barcode 540728!).

Pterandra pyroidea A.Juss.

Pterandra currently comprises 15 accepted species (11 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs or subshrubs endemic to non-flooded forests of the South American Amazon rainforest and Cerrado biomes, with just a single species occurring in non-flooded rainforests of Panama, Central America (Anderson 1997a; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Pterandra, see Anderson (1997a).

Byrsonima Rich. ex Kunth.

Stipules epipetiolar, leaves smaller than inflorescences, at least one petal cucullate at anthesis, presence of hydroxy acids and derivatives, imidolactams, keto acids and derivatives, organic phosphoric acids and derivatives, organofluorides, absence of oxanes.

Byrsonimeae currently comprises only three accepted genera (Blepharandra, Byrsonima, and Diacidia) and 181 species (57 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs or subshrubs endemic to the Americas (POWO 2024).

Blepharandra hypoleuca (Benth.) Griseb.

Blepharandra currently comprises six accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees or shrubs endemic to islands of savanna (campinaranas) within the Amazon rainforest biome of South America (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Blepharandra, see Anderson (1981).

Byrsonima spicata (Cav.) DC.

Byrsonima currently comprises 164 accepted species (49 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs, or subshrubs endemic to most biomes of the Neotropical region from swamps in the State of Florida (USA) to rainforests, savannas, dry forests, and grasslands of Southern Brazil (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). Two subgenera are currently recognised in Byrsonima (subg. Byrsonima and subg. Macrozeugma Nied.), but neither is monophyletic (Francener 2016). There is no updated identification key for all species of Byrsonima, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica, and Anderson (2016) for North America.

Diacidia galphimioides Griseb.

Diacidia currently comprises 11 accepted species (seven threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs or subshrubs endemic to campos rupestres and tepuis within the Amazon rainforest biome of South America (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Diacidia, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland and Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil.

Galphimia Cav.

Peduncle of cincinni present, floral buds with petals keeled, anther projections laterally inserted on thecae, presence of naphthopyrans and oxazinanes.

Galphimieae currently comprises only three accepted genera (Galphimia, Spachea, and Verrucularina) and 40 species (20 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs or subshrubs endemic to the Americas (POWO 2024).

Galphimia glauca Cav.

Galphimia currently comprises 26 accepted species (13 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs to subshrubs endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forest biome in the Neotropics from the U.S.A. to Brazil (Anderson 2007; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Galphimia, see Anderson (2007).

Spachea elegans (G.Mey.) A.Juss.

Spachea was described by Jussieu (1837) to accommodate the species previously placed in Byrsonima with unisexual flowers. Lophanthera was initially described by Jussieu (1840) based on L. kunthiana A.Juss., an illegitimate renaming of Galphimia longifolia Kunth. Grisebach (1858) transferred G. longifolia to Lophanthera and placed L. kunthiana in synonymy. Niedenzu (1914) described the second species of Lophanthera, L. spruceana Nied., ca. 50 years after Grisebach. With the expansion of the Amazonian frontier in Brazil, Ducke described the third and fourth new species of the genus almost two decades later (1925, 1937). Finally, Davis et al. (2020a, b) proposed Andersoniodoxa for the three species of Lophanthera with white to pink flowers and winged anthers. This was, in theory, strongly supported by molecular data. Nonetheless, the authors never made the sequences used in their article available in public repositories, and the analysis produced by us includes the type species of the three genera and recovers them as a strongly supported clade. Thus, we propose the recognition of a broadly circumscribed but morphologically cohesive Spachea, including all species of Lophanthera and Andersoniodoxa.

In the expanded circumscription presented here, Spachea includes 12 species (five threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of large trees distributed in flooded to non-flooded rainforests from the Amazon basin and Central America (POWO 2024). The highly unusual structure of the fruits in S. longifolia and S. spruceana is worth mentioning, as it might be a water dispersal adaptation that enables buoyancy in the mericarp. For an identification key for Spachea, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, and Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica.

Verrucularina glaucophylla (A.Juss.) Rauschert (≡ Verrucularia glaucophylla A.Juss.).

Verrucularina is a replacement name for Verrucularia A.Juss. since the latter is a posterior homonym of Verrucularia Suhr, a genus previously assigned to algae but currently belonging to Bryozoa. The genus currently comprises two accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs endemic to campos rupestres of the Amazon rainforest and Caatinga biomes of Brazil, South America (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Verrucularina, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland or Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil.

Malpighia L.

Posterior petal glandular, 2–10 fertile stamens, pollen 3–12-aperturate, zono- to pantoaperturate, porate or colporate, styles capitate, uncinate, truncate, expanded or rarely subulate, stigmas usually lateral, nuts or mericarps, frequently winged or setose, rarely smooth, chromosome number n = 9–10, presence of dithiols, furanoid lignans, organic phosphoric acids and derivatives, and propargyl-type 1,3-dipolar organic compounds.

Aside from subfamily Byrsonimoideae, all previously proposed subfamilies are recovered nested within Malpighioideae, making it non-monophyletic. Furthermore, most of these subfamilies are non-monophyletic on their own since they were traditionally circumscribed based on fruit morphology (especially dry vs. fleshy) and the presence or absence of mericarp wings. Therefore, in our current circumscription, subfamily Malpighioideae comprises nine main lineages of mostly Neotropical genera of Malpighiaceae (including Burdachia, Glandonia, and Mcvaughia, which were previously placed by Anderson 1977 in Byrsonimoideae). In its new circumscription, Malpighioideae comprises most of the family’s diversity (i.e., 63 genera and 1,254 species, with 624 threatened species; Suppl. material 1), including lianas, subshrubs, shrubs and trees occurring in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. We recognise nine tribes representing the main lineages within Malpighioideae, previously named by Davis and Anderson (2010) and Almeida et al. (2023a) as: 1. Acridocarpoid clade (Acridocarpeae), 2. Mcvaughioid clade (Mcvaughieae), 3. Barnebyoid clade (Barnebyeae), 4. Ptilochaetoid clade (Ptilochaeteae), 5. Bunchosioid clade (Bunchosieae), 6. Hiraeoid clade (Hiraeeae), 7. Tetrapteroid clade (Hiptageae), 8. Stigmaphylloid clade (Gaudichaudieae), and 9. Malpighioid clade (Malpighieae).

Acridocarpus Guill. & Perr.

Lianas, shrubs to treelets; thyrses, many-flowered, cincinni 1-flowered, bracts 1-glandular, peduncle absent, bracteoles eglandular; sepals glandular, nectariferous; posterior petals 2, margin crenate, eglandular; connectives eglandular, anthers poricidal, pollen 3-zonosyncolporate; styles reflexed in fruits; mericarps 1-winged, dorsal wing more developed, chromosome number n = 9, presence of diazanaphthalenes, isoflavonoids, oxacyclic compounds, absence of tetrahydrofurans.

Acridocarpeae currently comprises only two accepted genera (Acridocarpus and Brachylophon) and 38 species (20 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs or lianas endemic to Africa, Asia, and Oceania (POWO 2024).

Acridocarpus plagiopterus Guill., Perr. & A.Rich.

Acridocarpus currently comprises 36 accepted species (19 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs, scandent shrubs, or lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of Africa, Madagascar, the Arabic Peninsula, Iran, and Oceania (i.e., New Caledonia; POWO 2024). There is no updated identification key for all species of Acridocarpus, but Niedenzu’s (1928) treatment covers 25 out of the 36 currently accepted species.

Brachylophon curtisii Oliv.

Brachylophon currently comprises two accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs endemic to the rainforest biome in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand; POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment for Brachylophon, see Sirirugsa (1991) for Thailand.

Mcvaughia W.R.Anderson.

Trees, shrubs to subshrubs; thyrses, cincinni 1–7-flowered, bracteoles 1-glandular; pollen 4-zonocolporate (3-zonocolporate in Glandonia); drupes, epicarp striated, presence of linear 1,3-diarylpropanoids, and the absence of dithiols, indoles and derivatives.

Mcvaughieae currently comprises three accepted genera, Burdachia, Glandonia, and Mcvaughia, and 12 species (five threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees, shrubs to subshrubs endemic to the Amazon rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forests of South America (POWO 2024).

Burdachia prismatocarpa A.Juss.

Burdachia comprises only six currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees or shrubs endemic to flooded forests of the Amazon rainforests of Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Burdachia, see Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil or Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland.

Glandonia macrocarpa Griseb.

Glandonia comprises only three currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees or shrubs endemic to flooded forests of the Amazon rainforests of Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Glandonia, see Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, or Guesdon et al. (2018) for the Brazilian Amazon.

Mcvaughia bahiana W.R.Anderson.

Mcvaughia comprises only three currently accepted species (all threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Northeastern Brazil, South America (i.e., Caatinga biome; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Mcvaughia, see the taxonomic treatment of Almeida et al. (2019).

Barnebya W.R.Anderson & B.Gates.

Trees; thyrses, cincinni 2–3-flowered; pollen 4-zonoporate; mericarps 1-winged, dorsal wing more developed, presence of diarylheptanoids, keto acids and derivatives, oxazinanes, absence of benzopyrans, furanoid lignans, glycerophospholipids, lignan glycosides, naphthalenes, naphthopyrans, propargyl-type 1,3-dipolar organic compounds, pteridines and derivatives, tetrahydrofurans.

Barnebyeae currently comprises a single genus, Barnebya, and two accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees endemic to Brazil, South America (POWO 2024).

Barnebya dispar (Griseb.) W.R.Anderson & B.Gates.

Barnebya comprises two currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of large trees endemic to non-flooded forests of the Atlantic rainforest and Caatinga biomes in Brazil, South America (Almeida et al. 2020; POWO 2024). For an identification key for Barnebya, see Almeida et al. (2020).

Ptilochaeta Turcz.

Treelets to shrubs; thyrses reduced, 4-flowered; pollen 8-zonocolporate, styles apex geniculate to truncate; mericarp winged or setose, presence of 2-aryl-benzofuran flavonoids, dibenzyl-butane lignans, isoflavonoids, oxacyclic compounds, oxanes, pyrrolidines, thiocarbonyl compounds, absence of organothiophosphorus compounds, thiophenes.

Ptilochaeteae currently comprises three accepted genera, Dinemandra, Lasiocarpus, and Ptilochaeta, and ten currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of small trees or shrubs endemic to the Americas (POWO 2024).

Dinemandra ericoides A.Juss. ex Endl.

Dinemandra and Dinemagonum were traditionally distinguished from each other based exclusively on their fruit morphology, with Dinemandra presenting dominant lateral wings and Dinemagonum presenting a dominant dorsal wing. Nonetheless, both genera are strongly supported as sister based on molecular data, being further morphologically supported by stalked sepal glands basally connate forming pairs (Simpson 1989) and 8-colporate and reticulate pollen (Lowrie 1982). Recognising them as distinct provides no phylogenetic information and unnecessarily inflates this already genus-rich family. Thus, we propose a broadly circumscribed Dinemandra, including Dinemagonum. In the current circumscription, Dinemandra comprises two currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs endemic to the semi-desert vegetation of Chile, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Dinemandra, see Simpson (2011).

Lasiocarpus salicifolius Liebm.

Lasiocarpus comprises four currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Mexico, North America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Lasiocarpus, see Cardona-Cruz et al. (2021).

Ptilochaeta bahiensis Turcz.

Ptilochaeta comprises only three currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay, South America (POWO 2024). After carefully analysing all type specimens of this genus, Ptilochaeta densiflora Nied. is proposed here as a new synonym of Ptilochaeta nudipes Griseb. An identification key for most species of Ptilochaeta can be found in Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil.

Bunchosia Rich. ex Kunth.

Trees, shrubs or lianas; thyrses, cincinni 1-flowered; pollen 4–12-pantoporate (colporate in Echinopterys and Heladena); styles free, rarely connate, parallel; stigma terminal, capitate; drupes or mericarps smooth or winged, presence of azolidines, benzodioxoles, organochlorides, quinolizines, absence of organic carbonic acids and derivatives, organic phosphoric acids and derivatives.

Bunchosieae currently comprises five accepted genera, Bunchosia, Echinopterys, Heladena, Thryallis, and Tristellateia, and 122 species (68 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of mostly American taxa, except for the Paleotropical (i.e., tropics of Africa, Asia, and Oceania) Tristellateia (POWO 2024).

Bunchosia odorata (Jacq.) DC.

Bunchosia comprises 93 currently accepted species (46 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of trees or shrubs endemic to non-flooded rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forest biomes in the Neotropics from Mexico to Argentina (POWO 2024; Suppl. material 1). There is no updated identification key for all species of Bunchosia, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica, González-Gutiérrez and Meyer (2019) for the Antilles, and Anderson (2016) for North America.

Echinopterys lappula A.Juss. [= Echinopterys eglandulosa (A.Juss.) Small].

Echinopterys comprises only two currently accepted species of shrubs or lianas endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Mexico (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Echinopterys, see Pool (in prep.).

Heladena multiflora (Hook. & Arn.) Nied.

Similar to Dinemandra and Dinemagonum, Heladena and Henleophytum are strongly supported as sister by molecular data, being exclusively distinguished by their fruit morphology (Heladena having smooth mericarps and Henleophytum having setose mericarps). However, both genera share unique stalked peltate sepal glands, added to hairy petals, weakly coherent but soon separating styles, and stigmas elliptic and geniculate. Thus, we also propose the expansion of Heladena to include two currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Cuba, Antilles, Central America, and South America (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay) (POWO 2024).

Thryallis longifolia Mart.

Thryallis comprises five currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs or lianas endemic to the rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Thryallis, see Anderson (1995).

Tristellateia madagascariensis Poir.

Tristellateia comprises 21 species of lianas endemic to rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forests of Madagascar (19 threatened species; Suppl. material 1), with a single species occurring in continental Africa (Comoros, Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania) and another species endemic to Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam), and Oceania (Australia, Bismarck Archipelago, Caroline Islands, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku, Marianas, Nansei-shoto, New Caledonia, New Guinea, and Vanuatu; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Tristellateia, see Arènes (1947).

Hiraea Jacq.

Lianas; leaf blades with apex glandular; thyrses, many-flowered; pollen 4–12-pantocolporate (porate in Psychopterys); styles with apex uncinate, stigma lateral; mericarps winged, 2 lateral wings more developed than the dorsal, usually butterfly-shaped, presence of piperidines, absence of benzofurans, benzopyrans, dithiols, furanoid lignans, hydroxy acids and derivatives, naphthopyrans, pteridines and derivatives, pyrimidine nucleosides.

Hiraeeae currently comprises five accepted genera, Adelphia, Excentradenia, Hiraea, Lophopterys and Psychopterys, and 105 species (54 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas or shrubs endemic to the Americas (POWO 2024).

Adelphia hiraea (Gaertn.) W.R.Anderson.

Adelphia comprises four currently accepted species (two threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to non-flooded rainforests of Central America and the Amazon basin, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Adelphia, see Anderson (2006).

Excentradenia adenophora (Sandw.) W.R.Anderson.

Excentradenia comprises four currently accepted species (two threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to non-flooded forests of the Amazon rainforests of Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, French Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Excentradenia, see Anderson (1997).

Hiraea reclinata Jacq.

Hiraea comprises 81 currently accepted species (43 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of scandent shrubs or lianas endemic to rainforests from Mexico (North America) to Argentina (South America) but absent in the Antilles (POWO 2024). There is no updated identification key for all species of Hiraea, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, and Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica.

Lophopterys splendens A.Juss.

Lophopterys currently comprises seven accepted species (two threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to the non-flooded forests of the Amazon and Atlantic rainforests of Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, French Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Lophopterys, see Anderson and Davis (2001).

Psychopterys dipholiphylla (Small) W.R.Anderson & S.Corso.

Psychopterys comprises nine currently accepted species (five threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to seasonally dry tropical forests of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua, Central and North America (Pool 2023; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Psychopterys, see Anderson and Corso (2007) and Pool (2023).

Hiptage Gaertn.

Treelets, shrubs or lianas; thyrses, multi-flowered; pollen 4–12-pantocolporate (porate in Hiptage and some Heteropterys); nuts or mericarps winged, with 2–4-wings, butterfly, Y or X-shaped, rarely setose, absence of organic phosphonic acids and derivatives.

Hiptageae currently comprises 17 accepted genera, Alicia, Callaeum, Carolus, Chlorohiptage, Christianella, Dicella, Flabellaria, Flabellariopsis, Glicophyllum, Heteropterys, Hiptage, Jubelina, Malpighiodes, Mezia, Niedenzuella, Tetrapterys, Tricomaria, and 377 species (163 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) occurring in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania (POWO 2024).

Alicia anisopetala (A.Juss.) W.R.Anderson.

Alicia comprises only two currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forests of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an updated identification key for all species of Alicia, see Anderson (2006) or Almeida et al. (2020).

Callaeum nicaraguense (Griseb.) Small.

Callaeum comprises 11 currently accepted species (five threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of scandent shrubs or lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from the United States (North America) to Argentina (South America; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Callaeum, see Johnson (1986).

Carolus chlorocarpus (A.Juss.) W.R.Anderson.

Carolus comprises eight currently accepted species (five threatened species; Suppl. material 1) endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from Mexico (North America) to Brazil (South America; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Carolus, see the synopsis of Anderson (2006) for the entire genus, Almeida et al. (2023c) for Brazil, and Pool (2023) for Mesoamerica.

Chlorohiptage vietnamensis T.V.Do, T.A.Le & R.F.Almeida.

Chlorohiptage comprises a single species (one threatened; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests of Vietnam, Southeast Asia (Do et al. 2024). For a taxonomic treatment of the new genus, see Do et al. (2024).

Christianella mesoamericana (W.R.Anderson) W.R.Anderson.

Christianella comprises five currently accepted species (two threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from Mexico (North America) to Brazil (South America; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Christianella, see Anderson (2006).

Dicella bracteosa (A.Juss.) Griseb.

Dicella comprises seven currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from Costa Rica (Central America) to Argentina (South America; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Dicella, see Chase (1981).

Flabellaria paniculata Cav.

Flabellaria comprises a single currently accepted species of liana endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of Africa (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment for Flabellaria, see Wilczek (1958).

Flabellariopsis acuminata (Engl.) R.Wilczek.

Flabellariopsis comprises a single currently accepted species (not threatened; Suppl. material 1) of liana endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire, Africa (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment for Flabellariopsis, see Wilczek (1958).

Glicophyllum chamaecerasifolium (A.Juss.) R.F.Almeida.

Glicophyllum comprises 28 currently accepted species (four threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs, subshrubs or lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from Mexico (North America) to Argentina (South America; POWO 2024). There is no updated identification key for all species of Glicophyllum, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland (under Tetrapterys), Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, and Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica.

Heteropterys purpurea (L.) Kunth.

Heteropterys comprises 166 currently accepted species (75 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of treelets, shrubs, subshrubs or lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from North America (Mexico) to South America (Argentina), and West Africa (Angola, Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Zaire; POWO 2024). There is no updated identification key for all species of Heteropterys, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, and Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica. Glicophyllum jussieuanum (Nied.) R.F.Almeida is here placed in the synonymy of G. argenteum (A.Juss.) R.F.Almeida & M.Pell. comb. nov., due to its basionym being a replacement name for Hiraea argentea A.Juss.

Hiptage madablota Gaertn. [= Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz].

Hiptage comprises 47 currently accepted species (39 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forests of Southeast Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam) and Oceania (Fiji; POWO 2024). There is no updated identification key for all species of Hiptage, but for regional treatments, see Srivastava (1997) for India, Sirirugsa (1991) for Thailand, Chen and Funston (2008) for China, and Lim (2017) for Malaysia.

Jubelina riparia A.Juss.

No names have ever been published under the generic name Sprucina, but the collection cited in the protologue (Spruce 2853) refers to J. grisebachiana W.R.Anderson. Thus, J. grisebachiana is here designated as the type of Sprucina under Art. 10.2 Ex. 2 (Turland et al. 2018). Jubelina comprises six currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to the rainforests of Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Jubelina, see Anderson (1990).

Malpighiodes spruceana Nied. [=Malpighiodes bracteosa (Griseb.) W.R.Anderson].

Malpighiodes comprises four currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to the rainforests of the Amazon basin of Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela, South America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Malpighiodes, see Anderson (2006).

Mezia araujoi Schwacke ex Nied.

Mezia comprises 15 currently accepted species (eight threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to the rainforests of the Amazon and Atlantic rainforest biomes in South America (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela) and Panama, Central America (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment for all species of Mezia, see Anderson and Anderson (2018).

Niedenzuella poeppigiana (A.Juss.) W.R.Anderson.

Niedenzuella currently comprises 18 accepted species (three threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela) and Central America (Costa Rica and Panama; POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Niedenzuella, see Anderson (2006, also under Aenigmatanthera). Aenigmatanthera was reduced to a synonym of Niedenzuella by Almeida and van den Berg (2021) since its two species were recovered strongly supported as nested within the latter.

Tetrapterys inaequalis Cav.

Tetrapterys comprises 56 currently accepted species (18 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs and lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of the Neotropics from Mexico (North America to Argentina (South America; POWO 2024). There is no updated identification key for all species of Tetrapterys, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, and Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica.

Tricomaria usillo Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.

Tricomaria comprises a single currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Argentina, South America (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment of Tricomaria, see Aliscioni and Torretta (2017).

Malpighia L.

Treelets, shrubs or lianas; thyrses or corymbs; pollen 4–12-pantocolporate (porate in the Paleotropical species); styles with apex uncinate to truncate, stigma lateral; mericarps winged, 1–2-wings, butterfly-shaped to orbicular, rarely drupaceous or with dorsal wing more developed than lateral ones, presence of (3’–>5’)-dinucleotides and analogues, piperidines, absence of benzofurans, furanoid lignans, imidolactams, lignan glycosides.

Malpighieae currently comprises 13 accepted genera: Amorimia, Aspidopterys, Calcicola, Caucanthus, Diaspis, Digoniopterys, Ectopopterys, Madagasikaria, Malpighia, Mascagnia, Microsteira, Rhynchophora, and Triaspis, and 253 species (157 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) occurring in the Americas, Africa, and Asia (POWO 2024).

Amorimia rigida (A.Juss.) W.R.Anderson.

Amorimia comprises 15 currently accepted species (eight threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru, South America (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment for all species of Amorimia, see Almeida (2018).

Aspidopterys elliptica (Blume) A.Juss. ex Endl.

Aspidopterys comprises 24 currently accepted species (ten threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests of Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand, Tibet, and Vietnam, Southeast Asia (POWO 2024). For an updated identification key for all species of Aspidopterys, see Hutchinson (1917) for a partial revision, Sirirugsa (1991) for Thailand, and Srivastava (1997) for India.

Calcicola parvifolia (A.Juss.) W.R.Anderson & C.Davis.

Calcicola comprises only two currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Mexico, North America (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Calcicola, see Anderson and Davis (2007).

Caucanthus edulis Forssk.

Caucanthus comprises only two currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs or lianas endemic to seasonally dry tropical forests of east Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe) and the Arabic Peninsula (Saudi Arabia and Yemen; POWO 2024). For an updated identification key for all species of Caucanthus, see Launert (1968).

Diaspis albida Nied.

Diaspis comprises a single currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of liana endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia, Africa (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment of Diaspis, see Niedenzu (1928).

Digoniopterys microphylla Arènes.

Digoniopterys comprises a single currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrub endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Madagascar, Africa (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment of Digoniopterys, see Arènes (1946).

Ectopopterys soejartoi W.R.Anderson.

Ectopopterys comprises a single currently accepted species (no threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of liana endemic to rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forests of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, South America (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment of Ectopopterys, see Anderson (1980).

Madagasikaria andersonii C.Davis.

Madagasikaria comprises a single currently accepted species (one threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of liana endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Madagascar, Africa (POWO 2024). For a taxonomic treatment of Madagasikaria, see Davis (2002).

Malpighia glabra Plum. ex L.

Malpighia comprises 110 currently accepted species (85 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of treelets or shrubs endemic to rainforests and seasonally dry tropical forests from South America (Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) to Central (Aruba, Bahamas, Belize, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panamá, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, Turks-Caicos Islands, and Windward Islands) and North America (Mexico and United States of America; POWO 2024). For identification keys for all species of Malpighia, see the monographs by Vivaldi (1979) and Meyer (2000), the studies of González-Gutiérrez and Meyer (2019) for Cuba, and Pool (2023) for Mesoamerica.

Mascagnia americana Bertero [= Mascagnia macradena (DC.) Nied.].

Mascagnia comprises 48 currently accepted species (19 threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of shrubs or lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests from Mexico (North America) to Argentina (South America; POWO 2024). There is no current updated identification key for all species of Mascagnia, but for regional treatments, see Anderson (1981) for the Guyana Highland, Almeida et al. (2020) for Brazil, and Pool (in prep.) for Mesoamerica.

Microsteira curtisii Baker.

Microsteira comprises 27 currently accepted species (all threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to rainforests, savannas, and seasonally dry tropical forests of Madagascar, Africa (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Microsteira, see Arènes (1945).

Rhynchophora humbertii Arènes.

Rhynchophora comprises only two currently accepted species (all threatened species; Suppl. material 1) of lianas endemic to the seasonally dry tropical forests of Madagascar, Africa (POWO 2024). For an identification key for all species of Rhynchophora, see Anderson (2001a). Despite Madagasikaria causing the non-monophyly of Rhynchophora (Fig. 1), the bootstrap support value for this clade is below 60%. Therefore, we have chosen to retain both genera as independent until further phylogenetic evi­dence sheds some light on the matter.