Corresponding author: Gary A. Krupnick (
Academic editor: H. De Boer
A comprehensive compilation is provided of the medicinal plants of the Southeast Asian country of Myanmar (formerly Burma). This contribution, containing 123 families, 367 genera, and 472 species, was compiled from earlier treatments, monographs, books, and pamphlets, with some medicinal uses and preparations translated from Burmese to English. The entry for each species includes the Latin binomial, author(s), common Myanmar and English names, range, medicinal uses and preparations, and additional notes. Of the 472 species, 63 or 13% of them have been assessed for conservation status and are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (
DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA (2018) The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys 102: 1–341.
In many parts of the world traditional knowledge and biodiversity still play an import role in health care, culture, religion, food security, environment, and sustainable development. Moreover, many widely used plant-based medicines are derived from traditional knowledge. Preserving, protecting, and promoting (if scientifically supported) traditional knowledge is of key importance. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (
Some of the earliest literature concerning the medicinal plants of Myanmar includes:
• Mason F (1850) The Natural Productions of Burma; or, Notes on the Fauna, Flora, and Minerals of the Tenasserim Provinces and the Burman empire. Moulmain.
• Lace JH, Roger A (1922) List of Trees, Shrubs, and Principal Climbers, etc., recorded from Burma. Rangoon.
• Rodger A (1951) A Handbook of the Forest Products of Burma. Rangoon.
• Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Indigenous System of Medicine (1951) Rangoon.
• Sawyer AM, Daw Nyun (1955) Classified List of the Plants of Burma. Rangoon.
• Hundley HG, U Chit Ko Ko (1961) Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Principle Climbers, etc. Rangoon.
In 1948, when the Union of Burma first gained its independence from the United Kingdom, the first Burmese government began to build a pharmaceutical factory, the Burma Pharmaceutical Industry (
In 1957, Arnold Nordal was appointed as a United Nations advisor to assist the
Subsequent work includes the following:
• Mya Bwin D, Sein Gwan U (1967) Burmese Indigenous Medicinal Plants. Burma Medicinal Research Institute, Rangoon.
• Perry LM (1980) Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia: Attributed Properties and Uses. 620 pp. The MIT Press, Cambridge and London.
•
• Department of Traditional Medicine (No date [199-]) Medicinal Plants of Myanmar. Monograph. Ministry of Health, Myanmar. Accessed from
•
• Kress WJ, DeFilipps RA, Farr E, Daw Yin Yin Kyi (2003) A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar. National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC.
• Thein Swe, Sein Win (2005) Herbal Gardens and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Myanmar. 5 pp. World Health Organization. Regional Office for South-East Asia. Pyongyang, DPR Korea.
• Tun, U Kyaw, U Pe Than et al. (Update 2006) Myanmar Medicinal Plant Database.
The Ministry of Health in Myanmar established the Department of Traditional Medicine in 1989, and it was upgraded and reorganized in 1998 (
Traditional medicine is widely practiced in Myanmar by the majority of the population either as an alternate or as a supplement to modern medicine (
Botanical exploration of the Southeast Asian country of Myanmar (formerly Burma), which spans both tropical and subtropical biomes, began in the 1880s when the country was under the rule of the British (
Myanmar occupies an area of 678,033 sq. km in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, and the Bay of Bengal on the west, China to the north and northeast, Laos and Thailand to the east, and the Andaman Sea to the south. With the exception of the centrally located Ayeyarwady valley and delta, the most populated area, the terrain is generally hilly and mountainous.
The climate is mostly monsoonal, with cloudy, rainy, hot humid summers (June to September, southwest monsoon) and less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during the winter (December to April, northeast monsoon). Local climate, which has a major influence on the diversity and distribution of plant species, is determined by the combination of temperature, rainfall, and elevation. Geology and the resultant soils are major controlling factors in the local distribution of forest types and of individual species, although to some extent climate and soil counteract one another (
The vegetation consists of tropical lowland evergreen rain forest, primarily in the south; tropical hill evergreen rain forest and temperate evergreen rain forest above 900 m in the east, north, and west; semi-evergreen rain forest in a narrow belt bordering an arid central plain; mixed deciduous forest with teak (
As recently as 1931, Myanmar was nearly three-quarters forested (
The information presented here was compiled utilizing data from written sources and databases on Asian and Myanmar medicinal plants; the Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar (2003), which up-dates the largely unavailable earlier checklists with a more complete treatment of the grasses, orchids, and herbs; and, importantly, the English translation (provided by Thi Thi Ta) of Burmese Medicinal Plants (
The families, genera, and species are arranged alphabetically under the following categories: Ferns, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms. Under each genus, the species are listed under the Latin binomial followed by the author(s) and synonyms, English and Myanmar common names, global range and approximate distribution in Myanmar (including if cultivated), uses in Myanmar (for the many species from the newly translated Burmese publication, preparation is also included as well as detailed uses), notes, and references. If the species is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (
The family and genus names utilized here are in accordance with those given as taxa accepted in Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (
Myanmar distributions presented here are those given by
This list contains 123 families, 367 genera, and 472 species of medicinal plants. Of the 472 species, only 63 (13%) have been assessed for conservation status in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (
IUCN conservation assessments of the medicinal plant species treated in this study (
According to Botanic Gardens Conservation International’s ThreatSearch database (
According to BGCI’s PlantSearch database (
The number of botanic gardens worldwide that have digitally recorded accessions of each of the 472 medicinal plant species treated in this study.
Carrington CMS, Krupnick GA, Acevedo-Rodríguez P (2017) Herbarium-based preliminary conservation assessments of Lesser Antillean endemic seed plants reveal a flora at risk. The Botanical Review 83(2): 107–151.
Chen SL, Yu H, Luo HM, Wu Q, Li CF, Steinmetz A (2016) Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants: problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese Medicine 11: 37.
Colling G (2005) Red List of the Vascular Plants of Luxembourg. Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, Luxembourg.
Convention on Biological Diversity (
Eastwood A, Lazkov G, Newton A (2009) The Red List of Trees of Central Asia. Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge.
Fernando ES, Co LL, Lagunzad DA, Gruezo WS, Barcelona JF, Madulid DA, Lapis AB, Texon GI, Manila AC, Zamora PM (2008) Threatened plants of the Philippines: A preliminary assessment. Asian Life Sciences Suppl. 3: 1–52.
Kress WJ, DeFilipps RA, Farr E, Daw Yin Yin Kyi (2003) A Checklist of the Trees, Shrubs, Herbs, and Climbers of Myanmar. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 45: 1–590.
Kyaw Tint, Tun Hla (1991) Forest Cover of Myanmar, the 1988 Appraisal. National Forest Management and Inventory, FAO: MYA/85/003. Rome.
Miller SJ, Krupnick GA, Stevens H, Porter-Morgan H, Boom B, Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Ackerman J, Kolterman D, Santiago E, Torres C, Velez J (2013) Toward Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: an expert analysis of the Puerto Rican flora to validate new streamlined methods for assessing conservation status. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Garden 99(2): 199–205.
Mounce R, Smith P, Brockington S (2017) Ex situ conservation of plant diversity in the world’s botanic gardens. Nature Plants 3: 795–802.
Murphy M (1931) The geography of Burma. Journal of Geography 30: 17–33.
Myers N (1988) Threatened biotas: “Hotspots” in the tropical forestry. Environmentalist 8: 1–20.
Schippmann U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham AB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants on biodiversity: Global trends and issues. In: FAO (Eds) Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. FAO, Rome, 142–167.
Stamp LD (1925) The Vegetation of Burma from an Ecological Standpoint. Research Monograph No. I. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.
Stevens PF (2017) Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017.
Thein Swe, Sein Win (2005) Herbal Gardens and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Myanmar. 5 pp. World Health Organization. Regional Office for South-East Asia. Pyongyang, DPR Korea.
Taifour H, El-Oqlah A (2014) Jordan Plant Red List. Jordan Royal Botanic Garden, Amman.
Wang S, Xie Y (2004) China Species Red List. Vol. 1 Red List. Higher Education Press, Beijing, China.
Cosmopolitan.
Reported constituents include hydrocyanic acid, catechuic tannins, antivitamin B, antivitamin K, and pteridine. The rhizome contains filicic acid, essential oil, resin, some tannin, filicotannic acid, fatty oil, wax, aspidinol, sugar, gum, and starch (
Europe from Loire, southern Bavaria and central Russia southwards, in isolated localities in Brittany (France), the Netherlands and northern Germany; Asia; Africa; and America.
In India the whole plant is used for gonorrhea and as an abortifacient (
Reported constituents of
Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.
In Indo-China the plant is considered to be anthelmintic. On the Malay Peninsula crushed leaves are applied as a poultice for fever, a decoction is used as an embrocation, or an infusion may be drunk (“large and strong doses are apparently injurious”) (
California, in North America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Endangered [
Plant used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in
A member of this genus,
The monocyclic sesquiterpene fokienol is a reported chemical constituent of
Northern Australia and Malay Archipelago. In Myanmar, found in Taninthayi and Yangon.
Near Threatened [
Applied to ulcers, wounds (including malignant and varicose), skin lesions, and used for various skin diseases.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Europe, North Africa, western Asia. In Myanmar found in Chin and Shan.
Least Concern [
In India the leaf and fruit are used as an antispasmotic, sedative, and emmenagogue (
The leaves and seeds of
India to Polynesia and Australia. In Myanmar, found in Ayarwady, Rakhine, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Subcontinent of India. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Kayin, Magway, Mandalay, and Sagaing.
Cool and bitter in taste, controls phlegm and gall bladder function, stimulates appetite, reduces fever, and is particularly good as a remedy for children.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Maritime. South and southeastern Asia, northern Australia, and East Africa.
Least Concern [
In Taiwan the fruit, mixed with butter and made into a paste, is smoothed on to prevent the bursting of smallpox pustules; in Indo-China the bark is used to heal cutaneous affections, especially scabies; in Indonesia a resinous substance exuded from the bark “acts as a contraceptive, and apparently can be taken all year long without ill effects”; and in the Philippines the seeds are a maturative and a cicatrizant of ulcers, also resin from the sapwood is applied locally to snakebites (
The bark contains tannin and lapachol (
Tropical Asia, Africa, and India. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon, especially in fields and pastures.
Bitter and astringent in taste, highly beneficial for skin and blood diseases.
In India the root is placed on boils and glandular swellings; the bark is used for dropsy; and the leaf for toothache and rheumatism (
Wet places in Indo-China, Myanmar, Bangla Desh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan Punjab, and Tropical Africa. In Myanmar, found in Bago.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents in species belonging to this genus include an alkaloid; various enzymes; and linoleic, oleic, and ricinoleic acids (
Temperate Asia: China and Tropical Asia: Indian subcontinent. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the leaf is used for boils and headache (
In East and Southeast Asia, primarily the leaves are used for poulticing fresh wounds, sprained limbs, swellings, abscesses, boils, and headache (
India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar. Cultivated in the tropics. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the species is used in Ayurvedic medicine as a blood purifier and antispasmodic, as well as a treatment for bronchitis, asthma, tuberculosis, coughing, and intestinal worms (
“Reported constituents of the leaves are a very small amount of essential oil, vasicine (an alkaloid), and adhatodic acid. The first two have therapeutic properties. The alkaloid produces a slight fall in blood pressure followed by a rise to the original level, an increase persistent broncho-dilator effect.” Antiseptic and insecticidal properties are attributed to it (
Tropical Africa, Pakistan, India, Myanmar, Malaya, and Indo-China. In Myanmar, found in Bago.
In India the whole plant, macerated in rice (
Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India “Pounded leaves are rubbed onto the body during the cold period of an intermittent fever.” (
Tropical and southern Africa. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In India the leaf is used as an ingredient of headache poultices (
Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In India leaf juice is placed in the ear to treat deafness and is drunk for menorrhagia (
Tropical Asia. Found growing in natural gullies and mountain slopes of Myanmar, including in Chin, Kachin, Kayin, areas around Pyinmana, and other evergreen forests.
Data Deficient [
In India the bark is used for fever, the oil of the seed for leprosy (
Northern Hemisphere. Temperate and tropical Asia; found growing around ponds and streams in cool climates. In Myanmar, grows wild and is also cultivated for use in home medicinal remedies.
Least Concern [
Of the two varieties of this species, the larger is used in traditional medicines.
The medicinal uses of his species in India are discussed in
Japan, Taiwan, southeastern Asia, Malaysian Archipelago. In Myanmar found in Chin, Kachin, Sagaing, and Shan.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
India and Myanmar to Java; also cultivated. In Myanmar, it is found in Kachin and Taninthayi.
In India the resin is used on leucoderma and scabies; also for an antiscorbutic, carminative, stomachic, and expectorant (
Reported constituents include essential oil, vanilline, cinnamic acid, styrolene, naphthalene, and caoutchouc (
China, Taiwan, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Magway and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Widespread in drier parts of the tropics and subtropics of the Old World, from Myanmar, India and Sri Lanka westwards through Southwest Asia, across North Africa to Morocco and south to Cape Verde island and Cameroun Uganda and Tanzania to Madagascar. Introduced in Australia and elsewhere.
The species is used as a uricant (
Native range Australia, Northen Mariana Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Palau, the Philippines, Soloman Islands, and Singapore. Now very widespread in the tropics and subtropics of both the Old and New Worlds, especially in damp or wet locations. In Myanmar, found in Yangon.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Original habitat is obscure, probably tropical America. Thought to have originated from
In India the root of the species is used for dropsy (
Pantropical.
Widely distributed in tropics; a common weed. Found in China, Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan, Korea, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Russia, Sikkim, Thailand, Vietnam; also tropical Africa. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the seed is used for eye diseases, clearing the eyes, to treat mouth sores and blood diseases, as an aphrodisiac, and for diarrhea (
Europe, Asia, North America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the seed is used to treat skin diseases (
Reported chemical constituents include betaine, leucien, and essential oil (
Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported chemical constituents of the plant include volatile oil, ascaridol, geraniol, saponin, 1-limonene, p-cymene, and d-camphor (
Original range unknown; now only known in cultivation. Cultivated in all parts of Myanmar with the exception of the extremely cold regions.
Root (Bulb): Used in the treatment of flatulence, dysentery, and as a stimulant, diuretic and expectorant. Sweet and hot with some heating and diuretic properties, the onion is used to control flatulence, phlegm, fever and cough. It is also used to relieve nausea, stimulate the appetite, and fortify semen. Adults eat onion bulbs raw to alleviate urine blockages, but children with the same condition have roasted bulbs applied while still warm over the body area near the bladder. Children also drink onion juice mixed with sugar and chilled as a sherbet drink for diarrhea and infections that cause burning during urination. Mixed with a bit of sugar, half a tablespoon of fresh onion juice is ingested to treat bleeding hemorrhoids. Mixed with a bit of salt, onion juice is applied as eyedrops to alleviate night-blindness. For ear infections, either the warm juice of roasted onions or the juice of unroasted onions are used as eardrops. The milky liquid from cut onions, mixed with edible lime, is applied to scorpion sting to neutralize the venom. The onion is also used in mixtures to treat trembling and weakness in men (illness not specified in Agriculture Corporation 1980), thinness and weakness in women (illness not specified in Agriculture Corporation 1980), pain from flatulence, and illnesses that cause chest pain.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in
Central Asia. In Myanmar, grown mostly in Shan State as a cultivated plant.
Root (Bulb): Garlic is used to support blood and eye health, alleviate fevers and skin disorders, increase perspiration and semen production, stimulate the bowel and the bladder, and to promote virility and longevity. A half teaspoon of garlic powder, steeped in honey and taken at bedtime, is used as a vitalizing tonic to stimulate appetite and promote healthy sleep. It is used to break up phlegm, as well as to strengthen the blood and the gall bladder. Sap from cut garlic bulbs is a remedy for skin conditions, including ringworm, scabies, eczema, freckles and similar facial skin discolorations. Garlic milk, made by boiling seven large bulbs in 40 ticals (ca. 0.5 kg) of pure milk, cooling the mixture for about 10 minutes, and boiling it a second time, is ingested daily for hypertension. A teaspoon of garlic juice mixed with a bit of water and sugar is used to treat whooping cough; garlic juice is taken for coughs, bloated stomachs, and sores on the stomach. To alleviate flatulence, garlic is soaked in sesame oil with a bit of salt and ingested before meals. Infants are given single roasted garlic bulbs for colic and indigestion. For goiter, two drops of garlic oil are applied to the throat, as well as ingested three times a day. Garlic juice mixed with salt is consumed or rubbed at the temples as a remedy for headaches. Because of its germicidal properties, garlic is used to treat lung problems, deep wounds and sores; its juice is also rubbed on the body to ease aches and pains. A mixture consisting of two cloves of garlic boiled in sesame oil is poured warm into the ear as a remedy for deafness, infections, and aches. Garlic is a component of medicines that treat incompletely healed wounds, irregular menstruation, and various malaises (term used where cause of illness not specified in Agriculture Corporation 1980) of men.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of garlic in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Garlic prolongs elasticity of the aorta (
Myanmar:
Tropical Asia. Found in the warmer regions of Myanmar, growing naturally as well as under cultivation.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical America. Probably originating in Brazil. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The cashew nut, a true fruit, is rich in lipids, glucosides, calcium, phosphorus and vitamin B. It further yields a fair amount of protein, mineral salts, iron and fiber. The oil is a laxative and acts powerfully against intestinal worms; it is also excellent for use to treat premature aging of the skin. The irritating oil obtained after soaking the nuts in water is viscous-brown and contains 90% anacardic acid and 10% cardol which exhibits potent antibacterial activity against Gram positive bacteria. It is also used to treat sores, warts, ringworm and psoriasis (
Used in cosmetics, the juice contains substances capable of capturing free radicals. It has value for hair conditioning due to its proteins and mucilage. Therefore it is an excellent scalp conditioner and tonic used for making lotions and scalp creams. The enlarged receptacle (cashew apple) with a waxy skin provides vitamins A, B, and C, a few amino acids, calcium and iron. It exhibits strong potential activity against Gram positive bacteria and somewhat less antifungal activity against molds. The juice made from the cashew apple cures influenza (
The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by
The receptacle (pseudo-fruit) contains vitamin C; the main phenolic components of the oil from the shells are anacardic acid and cardol, which have antibacterial, molluscicidal and anthelminic properties; the inner bark has hypoglycemic action; tannins in the bark have anti-inflammatory properties; and, the essential oil of the leaves, which is comprised almost exclusively of alpha-pinene, acts as a depressant on the central nervous system (
The seed of
China, India, Laos, Malaysia (peninsular), Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Rakine and Yangon.
According to the
Sub-Himalayan tract to India, Myanmar, Assam, Sri Lanka, and the Andaman Islands; cultivated elsewhere in continental Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kayin, Mandalay, Rakhine, Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Reported medicinal uses of the species include: Antidote and astringent; for bruises, carbuncles, sores, swelling, and wounds; also for cholera, convulsion, diarrhea, dysentery, elephantiasis, hematuria; and rinderpest (
Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Data Deficient [
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by
Temperate eastern Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Mon, Sagaing, and Shan.
In India the flower buds are used for diarrhea; the fruit for stomachache; and the seed for stomachache and as a purgative, also on skin diseases (
The chemical constituents of the species include gallic acid and penta-m-digalloyl-beta-glucose (
Tropical Asia. Reported from Myanmar.
Sweet and astringent,
In India, the resin of this species is used for leprosy, nervous debility, skin diseases; and the fruit oil is used on warts and tumors; on cuts, sprains, piles, injuries; and for ascites, rheumatism, asthma, neuralgia, dyspepsia, epilepsy, psoriasis (
Thought probably native to Indonesia and the Philippines; found in China, sub-Himalayan tract from Chenab eastwards; widely cultivated and naturalized in Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia (peninsular), Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Reported from Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
New World tropics. In Myanmar, originally a cultivar primarily of the central region; now found growing wild all over the country.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by
Sri Lanka and southern India; cultivated widely in the tropics. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
As a Chinese folk medicine, its root and fruit are used to treat malaria and scrofula.
Leaf extracts of this species are used for antifertility; flowers for a stimulating tea-like beverage and also to extact essential oil used in perfume. Fruits are eaten by indigenous people to maintain their health. Additional medicinal uses of this species include as an antifungal, cardiac depressor, for cholera, and as a hypotensive and weak estrogenic (
Southeast Asia.
Plant contains antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic compounds used in treatments for eye conditions, as well as for malaria, gout, and headache.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Steam-distilled flower petals are the source of the perfume oil known as “ylang-ylang”, made in Asia, Madagascar and the Mascarenes. Perfumes, colognes, and toilet waters containing ylang ylang oil are responsible for several cases of allergic contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. (Benezra 1985).
Sri Lanka and southern India; cultivated in India, Malaya, Pakistan and Tropical East Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Significant antimicrobial and antifungal activity of clerodane diterpenoids has been found from the seeds of this species (Marthanda Murthy et al. 2005). Methanolic extracts have yielded 20 known and two new organic compounds, some of which show cytotoxic properties (
Indigenous to Mediterranean region, but adventive and cultivated worldwide in tropical and temperate climates. Grows naturally and is also cultivated in Upper Myanmar.
This is a common plant widely cultivated for use as an herb, and for its fruit which is used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and carminative. The medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
Eurasia and worldwide. Although found growing naturally, it is cultivated all over Myanmar for use as a vegetable.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
In Thailand, researchers have shown that the seed extract is an effective larvicide for the dengue fever mosquito vector,
Throughout tropical and some subtropical parts of world. Widely distributed in Myanmar, especially in the cooler regions, and found all year near the water’s edge. Although it grows wild, it is also widely cultivated as it is much used.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Southern Europe. Cultivated in Myanmar (found as seasonal cultivar throughout country).
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Eurasia; widely naturalized. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The species is used as a diuretic and to soothe the digestive tract. An infusion of the herb is employed to treat various complaints including digestive disorders, kidney and bladder disease, and to treat dropsy. An infusion of the leaves is used to counter cystitis and kidney stone formation, and to diminish already formed stones. A warm water infusion of the flowers is used in the treatment of diabetes. The grated raw root is used as a remedy for threadworms. The root is also used to encourage delayed menstruation, and to induce uterine contractions; a tea made from roots serves as a diuretic and is also used to treat urinary stones; and an infusion is used to treat edema, flatulent indigestion, and menstrual problems (
Southern Europe to West Asia.
The chemicals in this plant have been shown to be effective in the treatment of piles, and as a tonic and aphrodisiac (
Native to the Old World. Now worldwide in tropical and temperate climates; perennial in temperate regions. Cultivated at altitudes up to 1.8 km. In Myanmar, found in Shan.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Himalayas, in India and West Pakistan; from Kashmir to Bhutan, 2–3962 m. In Myanmar, found in Kachin.
Worldwide in tropical and temperate climates. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The seeds of this species are considered antispasmodic, tonic, carminative, and are included in plasters to ease pain. Crushed with a variety of simples, they are prescribed as internal medicine for diseases of the stomach and liver, as well as for sore throats, coughs, and rheumatism (
The seeds have been found to be an important source of thymol, “a well-known antiseptic” (
Apparently native to South India. Cultivated as a spice throughout the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Apparently native to South India. Cultivated and adventive in China.
Plant employed for culinary and medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in
In the case of another species in this genus,
Origin probably in northern South America, but now widespread in tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the bark is used as a hydragogue for ascites; the leaf as a cathartic (
China, Cambodia, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; also Tropical Australia and Africa. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon. Grows naturally in the plains and on low hills, particularly in Lower Myanmar.
Lower Risk/least concern [
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents include the following alkaloids: echitamine (also called ditain), ditamine, echitenine, alstonamine, echitamidine (
Investigators have reported activity against the snail vector,
Native of New World, from Florida to South America and West Indies. Widely introduced and cultivated elsewhere.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The leaves contain a triterpinoid and an alkaloid. The active glycoside, asclepiadin, is
Tropical Asia, including Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The latex contains caoutchouc, resins, water soluble matter, and a residue. It yields digitalis-like principles (uscharin, calotropin, and calotoxin), and a nitrogen and sulphur-containg compound, gigantin, which depresses the heart. Calcium oxalate, traces of glutathione, and a proteolytic enzyme similar to papain have also been found (
Tropical Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, along the banks of streams and rivers and along sand bars.
India and Sri Lanka to Myanmar. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the root is an ingredient of purgatives (
A tribe in India grinds the roots and uses them in combination with the roots of some other medicinal plants to treat rheumatism. The roots are also a strong purgative (a large dose may prove fatal). Additionally, roughly ground root powder is mixed with water and poured into holes of snakes to serve as a repellant (
South America, Neotropical. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar; also cultivated there.
Although
Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Data on the propagation, seed treatment and agricultural management of this species are given by
Endemic to Madagascar (endangered), but cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics of both hemispheres, sometimes extending to the subtropics. Found growing naturally around Myanmar; also cultivated.
This plant is known for neutralizing poisons, facilitating digestion, and promoting weight gain.
Although there are two kinds of plants – with white or reddish brown flowers – only the plant with the reddish brown flowers is used.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The species contains the alkaloid serpentine which, like reserpine, is hypotensive, sedative, and tranquilizing (
China, Bagladesch, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Kashmir, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam. Grows naturally over Myanmar.
Known for its bitter taste and heating properties,
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Africa and in Southeast Asia, from Pakistan to Malaysia.
Least Concern [
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; also Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Sagaing, Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Malay Peninsula. Native to Myanmar; now widely cultivated. Cultivated in Myannmar.
. The species is used medicinally for sores and syphilis; also cholinergic (chemical found in plant shown to be effective for this).
A
From Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula, Ethiopia, Niger, Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq to India and central China. Found all over Myanmar; naturalized, also cultivated as an ornamental plant.
Least Concern [
This plant is
Medicinal use of this species in China is discussed by
In India the leaf is used as a cardiotonic and oil from the root bark is employed for skin diseases (
The bark contains glycosides with digitalis-like activity (
Mexico, Central America, South Asia. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar except in very cool mountainous areas; also cultivated.
Known to promote digestive, excretory, respiratory, and immune functioning, with activity against leprosy, infections, and stomach ailments.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Researchers report cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell lines (
Reported chemical constituents include agoniadin, plumierid, plumeric acid, cerotinic acid, and lupenol; the stem contains the alkaloid, triterpinoid. A new antibiotic, fluvoplumierine, which inhibits growth of
India to Java. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kayin, Mandalay, Mon, and Yangon.
This astringent, sharp, and bitter plant is used to improve digestion, relieve gas, and stimulate taste buds, as well as to alleviate paralysis, trembling, male-related disorders leading to excessive semen, and gonorrhea. It is also used for other venereal diseases, hypertension, anemia, heart palpitations, impotence, and lack of semen.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Thought to be a native of India, but now cultivated throughout Continental and Southeast Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the stem bark serves as a refrigerant; the leaf’s milky juice is used in the treatment of eye diseases; and the root is applied locally an anodyne, as well as chewed to relieve toothache (
Reported chemical constituents (alkaloids from the bark of the stem and root) are tabernaemontanine, coronarine, coronaridine, and dregamine; alkaloids also occur in all of the vegetative parts (
India and Sri Lanka. In Myanmar, found is Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In India the bitter bark is employed as an astringent; the latex, an irritant, is applied on wounds and sores (
The plant has been found to contain cardiotonic glycosides (
China, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tests for the presence of alkaloids in this species were negative (
Paleotropics. Found only in Myanmar’s temperate regions; grows naturally.
Least Concern [
In its genus, this species is considered one of the most effective medicinally and subsequently one of the most desired by international buyers.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Java. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the tuber is hemostatic on injuries, cuts, burns, and honey bee stings (
Widespread from Madagascar, through India and the Himalayas to southwestern China, south through Indochina; also in Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, and the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Temperate China; tropical Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka; Indo-China; Malaysia. Naturalized elsewhere. In Myanmar, found in Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Native to China, India, Myanmar, and Indo-China.
The species is reported to be employed for toothache (
Southeast Asia, from Myanmar to the Philippines.
In Indo-China the fibers from the axils of the leaves are applied in the form of moxas for cauterization of bites of poisonous animals or insect stings; on the Malay Peninsula the fruits may be put into juice, mixed with bamboo hairs and toad-extract, and used to poison food. Even the fruit’s pulp causes skin irritation (
Native of India and eastward; sometimes cultivated in Indo-China. In Myanmar found in Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The essential oil contains a trace of camphor, and sesquiterpenes, ishwarene, ishwarone, and ishwarol The roots contain an alkaloid, aristolochine, a yellow bitter principle, isoaristolochic acid, and allantoin (
China, Taiwan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Sikkim, Thailand, Vietnam; Soloman Islands and Queensland in Australia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kayin, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Eastern Mexico. Cultivated in Myanmar.
A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in
Mexico. Introduced into southern Europe, northwestern Africa, Mauritius, India, and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the whole plant is used as a purgative (
India and China. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Shan.
Data Deficient [
In India the root is used as an astringent and tonic (
Europe, Asia, North Africa. Not common in Upper Myanmar. Found in humid locations; cultivated in hilly and cooler regions.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
India and South China to the Solomon Islands. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay, Mon, and Sagaing.
In the Philippines the roots are chewed, and the saliva swallowed as a remedy for centipede bites; additionally, a decoction of the roots is ingested to treat stomach problems. In the older literature, the medicinal uses of this species are listed as follows: A decoction of the leaves is ingested to treat dysentery, leucorrhea, and blennorrhea; also considered to be a galactagogue. A decoction of the roots along with
Canary Islands and Arabian Peninsula.
Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by
New World Tropics. In Myanmar found in Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Origin thought to have been Central Asia, probably Siberia. Current range southern Europe, Asia, United States, west to the Mississippi River.
The leaves and young shoots of the species are said to be of particular value for their beneficial effect on digestion. In addition to stimulating the digestive system and uterous, the leaves, and an essential oil obtained from them, lower fevers and destroy intestinal worms; they also serve as an antiscorbutic, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypnotic, odontalgic, stomachic, and vermifuge (
South and southeastern Asia, China, and Taiwan. Widespread in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
The reported chemical composition includes cineole and limonene; also palmitic acid, myristic acid, sesquiterpemne alcohol, dimethly ether, and pyrocaechic tannin (
Origin thought to be the eastern Mediterranean. Currently known only in cultivation and as escapes. Found as a cultivar in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
New World subtropics and tropics- Florida, Texas; Mexico; and West Indies. Pantropical weed. Widespread in Myanmar.
In India the leaf is used to treat dysentery; also applied on fresh cuts and wounds to stop bleeding (
An aqueous ethanol extract of the leaves of
East, West-Central, West, and South tropical Africa; temperate and tropical Asia; and Australasia. Widely naturalized elsewhere. Widespread in Myanmar.
In India, the whole plant is used as a diaphoretic “to remedy bladder spasms and strangury,” and in a decoction for promoting perspiration in fevers; plant juice is given for piles; the flower is used for conjunctivitis; the seed for as an alexipharmic and anthelmintic; and the root is used for dropsy (
North America (where flowers nearly year round, mostly summer to fall); Mexico; West Indies; Central America; South America; introduced in Asia, Africa, Pacific Islands, Australia, and Europe. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar, rampantly like a weed in areas with much rain.
Least Concern [
Promotes vitality, health, and circulation; stimulates strong hair growth; used for respiratory illnesses, as well as for inflammation of eyes and other parts of the body.
The medicinal uses of this species (syn.:
Tropical Africa, Eastern Asia, Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Australia. In Myanmar, found in Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.
In Indian the leaf is used on cuts and to control vomiting; the root is used to check vomiting, for fever in children, on pimples, as an abortifacient, also for urinary problems, amoebic dysentery and other digestive disorders (
The leaves contain a bitter principle; the plant has no alkaloid, but a white crystalline substance, apparently of glycoside nature, has been extracted. Also, an extract of the leaves has been shown to have antibiotic activity against
Old World tropics; naturalized in southern Florida. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Occurs in both hemispheres from the Philippines, Indochina, and tropical Africa to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, Ecuador and Columbia. Introduced into Mexico. Found growing naturally at freshwater edges throughout Myanmar, except in very cold areas.
Least Concern [
In India the leaf is used as a laxative, demulcent, and is antibilious; it is also used for nervous conditions and the skin (
Widespread in tropical and subtropical Africa, Madagascar, and Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Yangon.
Least Concern [
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
China, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India plant used in treating skin afflictions as follows: leaves ground and applied as paste on boils; decotion of aerial parts used as wash for burning sensations and gonorrhea (
Africa, Asia, Australasia/ Pacific, naturalized in Madagascar. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Shan.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The plant has a hypoglycemic property (
Mexico and Central America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Subtropical, temperate. In Myanmar, prefers temperate climates and can be cultivated at up to 1065–2135 m in altitude; thrives in Chin State, Shan State, Kachin State, Kokang area, Wa area, Naga hills, Mogok, Kyatpyin and Pyin Oo Lwin.
Least Concern [
Stimulates appetite and heart functioning.
The species is used as an insecticide. The old Chinese use of the genus
Asia and Africa. Found growing naturally in Myanmar’s hot regions (such as Bago and Mandalay).
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Eastern Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the fruit is employed as a diuretic and demulcent, also edible; the root “extract yields a product ‘rasaut’ with the same properties as
Berberine, present in the rhizomes, has been shown to have a marked antibacterial effect and is used as a bitter tonic. It is used orally in the treatment of various enteric infections, especially bacterial dysentery. Berberine has also been shown to have antitumor activity (
Eastern Himalayas and western China. In Myanmar, found in Chin and Kachin.
Least Concern [
In India, the bark is used to treat dysentery and stomachache; the leaf is employed on cuts and wounds; and the root is used for diarrhea (
China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Plant used as a cure for psora.
Phenolic glycosides have been found in this species as follows: five verbascoside derivatives (markhamiosides A-E) and one hydroquinone (markhamioside F) were isolated together with 13 known compounds from the leaves and branches of this species (
China, Taiwan, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
An ethanal extract of the leaves of this species was found to exhibit significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic activites (
Subtropical and tropical. Found from India to tropical China, south into Southeast Asia. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar up to 1220 m altitude.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
In Indo-China and the Philippines the bark of the trunk and root are used in the same way as in Myanmar. On the Malay Peninsula the bark is used for dysentery. A decoction of the leaves is drunk for stomach disorders, rheumatism, and wounds; and is made into hot fomentations to treat cholera, fever, and rheumatic swellings. The cooked leaves are used as poultices for various ailments during and after childbirth; also for dysentery, and to relieve headache and toothache. In Indonesia the bitter bark serves as a remedy for stomach problems, and also as a tonic and appetizer. Additionally, the bark is chewed as a depurative, especially after parturition. The flowers are used as a remedy for inflammation of the eyes. The pith serves as a styptic. In the Philippines the juice from the crushed bark is rubbed on the back to relieve the ache accompanying malaria (
Oroxylin, isolated from the bark and seeds, has been found to be a mixture of three flavones, baicalein, 6-methylbaicalein, and chrysin. Oroxylin-A consists of phtalic and benzoic acids, and phloroglucinol (
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam; commonly cultivated throughout India, Indonesia, and Malaysia, occasionally naturalized. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar, except in cold areas.
India to the Malay Peninsula.
In India the bark is tonic, diuretic; used for stomachache, cholera, malaria, and liver problems. The root is used for chest and brain afflictions, also intermittent and puerperal fevers (
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widespread in Myanmar.
In India the leaf is used for dyspepsia; the root for asthma, cough, and excessive thirst (
New World tropics.
Reported uses of the species include stomachache, alcoholism, atony, biliousness, diabetes, diuretic, dysentery, gastritis, inappetence, indigestion, intoxicant, pain, stomachic, syphilis, tonic, and vermifuge (
Pods of
Tropical America.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity, and dosages, are discussed by Germosèn-Robineau (1997). The chemistry, pharmacology, history and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by
Southern China, Taiwan south to northeastern Australia and New Caledonia. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
India to Australia. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
The fruit of this species is used throughout its range for its sticky mucilaginous pulp which is eaten to suppress cough, for chest complaints, to treat a sore throat, and as a demulcent; also applied as an emollient to mature abscesses, to calm rheumatic pain, and as an anthelmintic. In Tanzania the fruit pulp is applied on ringworm. In Mali and the Ivory Coast the leaves are applied to wounds and ulcers. A macerate of the leaves is taken to treat trypanosomiasis, and is externally applied as a lotion to tse-tse fly bites. In the Comoros the powdered bark is applied to the skin in cases of broken bones before a plaster is applied, to improve healing. Bark powder is used externally in the treatment of skin disease; bark juice, together with coconut oil, is taken to treat colic.
Chemical screening of both leaves and fruits shows that pyrrolizidine alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins, terpenes, and sterols are present. The principle fatty acids in the seed are palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, oleic, and linoleic. Petroleum ether and alcoholic extracts shows significant analgesic, anti-inflammatoroy, and anti-arthritic activities is tests with rats. Four flavonoid glycosides, a flavonoid aglycone, and two phenolic derivatives were isolated. Ethanol extracts from fruits and leaves show significant antioxidant activities due to the carotenoids, but no antidmicrobial activity against bacteria (
Pantropical. In Myanmar, found in Yangon.
In India the whole plant is used for ulcers, boils, insect bites, and throat infection; the leaf for insect and reptile bites (
The species contains an important anti-cancer ingredient, indicine-N-oxide, which shows significant activity against the P388 leukemia. “It is also active against the B16 melanoma, L1210 leukemia, and Walker 256” and “in 1976, no negative histopathologyic findings indicative of the heptotoxicology usually associated with pyrrolizidine alkaloids, had been demonstrated for indicine-N-oxide.” Also, acetyl indicine, indicinine, and indicinine have been reported for this species (
Native to western Europe; cultivated worldwide.
Data Deficient [
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
North Africa, Europe, Southwest and Central Asia; widely introduced. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Hot and bitter in taste with heating properties, effective, aids digestion, calms the phlegm, cures vomiting of blood, passing of blood, leprosy, itching and rashes.
China, East Pakistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaya, and the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Rakhine.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australasia, and Pacific. Found growing naturally in lower Myanmar, but also thrives well in coastal areas with hot and wet climates. It is cultivated in some areas.
Lower Risk/least concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Asia, India. Found throughout Myanmar, but especially in Tanintharyi Division, growing naturally in tropical evergreen forests up to altitudes of 1065 m; also grown in gardens for ornamental purposes.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The flowering twigs contain an essence of sesquiterpene, cannabin, solid alcohol, and hydrate of cannabin. Contents of the seeds include protein, lipids, choline, trigonlline, xylose, inosite, many acids and enzymes, phosphates, and phytosterols. Two active substances found in the resin are cannabinol and cannabidiol,
Tropical America. Found growing throughout Myanmar; also cultivated.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
Myanmar, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Magway, Mandalay, and Sagaing.
India to Indo-China, East Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Magway, Mandalay and Shan.
In the Philippines the leaves are used as a counter-irritant; additionally, the leaves (rubbed with salt and sometimes pounded) are used on the forehead and/or the temples as a remedy for headache. In Indo-China the plant is used for the same stimulant properties as the
Reported constituents include alkaloid, phytosterol, mucilaginous substance, and water-soluble acid (
India to Indo-China and the Ryukyus, south through Moluccas and New Guinea, east to Polynesia. Reported from Myanmar.
In China the leaf is used as a tonic, stomachic, resolvent; also used for dysentery, headache, and stomachache (
Reported constituents of the bark include lupeol (a triterpene) and beta-sitosterol. (
Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Data Deficient [
Known for binding and heating properties, the fruit, seeds, sap, leaves, and roots are used.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
The latex of
The leaves contain an alkaloid, carpaine, which in small doses slows down the heart and reduces blood pressure, whereas in higher doses produces vasoconstriction; and that carpaine has spasmolytic action on smooth muscle, as well as being a strong amoebicide (
Asia and Europe.
In China the fruits and seeds are considered to be vulnerary, discutient, styptic; anodyne to treat cuts, to draw thorns from wounds, to apply to boils and scabies; and, used internally, a galactagogue. The shoot, leaves, flowers, and root have the same properties as the seeds (
Reported constituents as of the seeds include saponin and a carbohydrate, lactosin (
Tropical Asia to Australia and Oceania. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
India to southern China south (not in Borneo) to Australia and New Caledonia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In India the bark is used for wounds, cough, colds, and fever; the leaf and root for headache; and the seed for piles and digestive trouble (oil), rheumatic pain, and as a stimulant (
Reported chemical constituents include phytosterol, celastrol, a resinous substance in the aril of the seed, and a semi-solid fat. Two alkaloids, celastrine and paniculatin, have been isolated from the oil cake, but were not found in the oil expressed from the seeds (
Temperate Asia. Grows naturally in Myanmar; most abundant in Kachin state.
Southeastern Asia to as far south as New Guinea. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The species is an aromatic. On the Malay Peninsula the dried crushed leaves or roots are used to make a tea for use as a sudorific and a febrifuge; also, after boiling, the roots are powdered and rubbed on the body to treat fever. In Indonesia little packets (stem with root and leaves) are used as a valued remedy for fever and as a restorative in some phases of venereal diseases. The plant is a stimulant; additionally, mixed with the bark of
300 m; Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, east to China and Malaysia. Widespread in Myanmar.
In India the whole plant is used for scorpion sting; the leaf for rheumatism, neuralgia, stiff neck, diseases of the ear, pyorrhea, skin diseases, also vermicidal; the seed is used for cough; and an unspecified plant part is used for asthma and fever (
Malay region; cultivated in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Most parts of the tree are astringent, but the powdered rind of the dried fruit is the most efficacious. In India, Indo-China south including Indonesia and the Philippines, the bark and fruit (pericarp) are used in the same ways as they are in Myanmar. On the Malay Peninsula a decoction of the root is given for irregular menstruation, and a decoction of the leaves with unripe bananas and benzoin is applied externally to wounds such as those of circumcision. Additionally, in Indonesia the external application of the prepared peicarp is as in a clyster and a sitz bath, and is also used to treat atonic ulcers and swollen tonsils (
Western Himalayas, northern India. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
An extract from the bark of this species was found to stimulate the growth of neurons or nerve tissues in culture studies (
Tropical Africa and Asia. Grows naturally all over Myanmar, but more common in the temperate regions.
Least Concern [
Bitter, astringent and sharp in taste with heating properties, this plant is used to control flatulence and phlegm, promote urine production, treat bladder conditions, poisoning, leprosy, hemorrhoids, bloating and lung problems.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Southeast Asia to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. Grows naturally in the hot and humid areas of Myanmar.
In China the fruit is primarily used as a vermifuge; also for abdominal distention, dyspepsia, and marasmus, leucorrhea; macerated in oil, it is applied to skin ailments due to parasites; the ripe seed is roasted and used to treat diarrhea and fever (
Extracts show antitumor and cathartic activity (
India to Indo-China south through Indonesia. In Myanmar found in Bago, Magway, and Mandalay.
The flowers, bark, fruit, and seed kernel are used in medications to relieve constipation, treat heart disease, cure eye infections, strengthen hair, protect the voice from deterioration, and clear blood irregularities, as well as to relieve sore throat and coughing. However, ingesting too much is known to cause vomiting and dizziness.
In India the bark is used as a diuretic; also for high fever, cold dysuria, sunstroke, cholera (with the bark of two other species), snakebite (with the bark of one other species); the resin is used for cramps; the gum is a demulcent, purgative, and soothes itches. The fruit is used as an astringent, brain tonic, for measles (with plant parts from two other species), cough, asthma, stomach and liver disorders, piles, leprosy, dropsy, fever; also, half-ripe fruit is purgative, but ripe fruit has the opposite property. The oil is used on rheumatic pain; fruit pulp (with honey) is used on opthalmia; and the seeds are used for gastric problems (
The fresh fruit yields glucose, tannin, and three glycosidal fractions (
Tropical Asia to Northern Australia and Polynesia, and cultivated in many places. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Unripe fruits of
Native to India, Indo-China, Myanmar, and Thailand. Cultivated and imported elsewhere. Reported from Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents include oil, tannin, and chebulic and ellagic acids (
From India to the Philippines. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar, especially in Taninthayi.
In Indonesia a decoction made from this species and “adaspoelasari” is taken as a treatment for abdominal illness; in the Philippines, the fruit is considered an astringent, and a decoction is used in treating thrush and obstinate diarrhea (
India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Widespread in Myanmar.
Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and West Indies. Grows throughout Myanmar; cultivated.
In China the plant is used as a poultice on swellings and wounds; the flower is used to treat dysentery, enterorrhagia, and hemoptysis (
Mediterranean Europe native; temperate and dry subtropical climates. Found growing naturally around lakes, ponds, streams, and in cultivated fields. In Myanmar, found in Magway and Mandalay.
In Indonesia all parts of the plant are used as a purgative, and the roasted seeds are anthelmintic, diuretic, and antibilious; on the Malay Peninsula a poultice is applied to the head in cases of jungle fever; and in the Philippines a decoction of the roots is used as a mouthwash for toothache (
Afganistan, throughout northern India to Yunnan China, Java, and Sri Lanka. Found growing naturally in upper Myanmar, Pyin Oo Lwin, and in the upper Chindwin area.
Sweet-tasting; used to treat diseases of the bile as well as to increases strength and the sperm count; also considered to promote longevity.
In India the whole plant is used to reduce swellings and for headaches; the stem is used for jaundice and wounds (
Florida, tropical America. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay and Yangon.
In India the whole plant is used as a febrifuge and vermifuge; the leaf is used to treat asthma and bronchitis (
Central and southern China; Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; Africa; Australia; Carribbean Territories; North America; South America; amd Pacific Islands. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar; also cultivated.
Sweet, bitter, and astringent, with heating properties; used to expel and cure flatulence disorders, as well as to treat leprosy.
The medicinal use of this species in India is discussed in
Native to central and south China. Widespread in Myanmar, where it is found growing in freshwater ditches, streams, ponds, and paddy field; and is also grown as a cultivated plant.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The leaves are considered a good source of minerals and vitamins, especially carotene. Hentriacontane, sitosterol, and sitosterol glycoside have been separated from the lipoids (
Native range the Americas. In Myanmar, found in Yangon.
In India the root is a sternutatory (
Pantropical; seashores. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Rakhine, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
No alkaloids were found, but there was 1.2% resin content. Magnesium, potassium, iron, and calcium were found in the ash. A volatile oil was also found (0.048%) (
China, Bhutan, India, Kashmir, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan. In Myannmar, found in Kachin and Shan.
Species belonging to the genus
Reported chemical constituents of the seeds include tutin, pseudotutin, and coriamyrtin. Coriamyrtin is considered to be “a violent convulsive poison” (
Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, Taninthayi, Yangon.
Old World tropics; exact origin unknown. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Crushed leaves are cooling and used as a disinfectant by indigenous cultures. From southern China to Guam, they are used on suppurating boils, wounds, skin diseases, burns, scalds, corns, and also (with friction) for rheumatism, neuralgia, and pain. Leaves are placed on the forehead for headaches, and on the chest for cough and pain. They are mixed with leaves from other species for a poultice applied to the abdomen for bowl troubles. Similar uses are recorded from the Philippines. Juice from heated leaves and stems is squeezed on body areas infected with scabies (
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Tropical Asia. Cultivated all over Myanmar up to altitudes of 1220 m.
Known for a sweet and slightly salty taste, giving strength and controlling bile, the flowers, seeds, roots and especially the fruits are used in medicinal preparations.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents include fixed oil, starch, the alkaloid cucurbitine, an acid resin, proteins (myosin and vitellin), and sugar (
Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australasia, Pacific. Found growing wild throughout Myanmar; found growing up trees and hedges.
Of the two kinds of kin pone, bitter and sweet, the bitter kind is the most used in medicines. All five parts (root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit) are employed.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Southern Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the fruit is used as a demulcent and the seed as a diuretic, tonic, and coolant (
Reported constituents include a small amount of saponin, a proteolytic enzyme, and glutathione (
Old World tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the seed is used as a cathartic and emetic (
Reported constituents include a bitter principle, saponin, mucilage, xylan, mannan, galactan, lignin, fat, and protein (
Tropical Asia. Cultivated throughout Myanmar; a small variety grows naturally.
Bitter, rather hot and sharp, with cooling properties, and easily digested, this plant is considered good for bowel movements. It is used to defeat germs, control bile and phlegm, and stimulate hunger, as well as to alleviate anemia and eye, venereal, and urine-related diseases.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by
This plant is a well known traditional anti-diabetic remedy, its hypoglycemic properties based on peptides and terpenoids in the fruit juice (
Temperate and tropical Asia, from China to the Moluccas; Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Rakhine, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Medicinal uses in the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana) are discussed in
Reported chemical constituents include momordin, a-spinasterol, and sesquibenihiol. The seeds have a fixed oil comprised of stearic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and ricinoleic acids, and also trehalose, resinous, and pectic substances; and that the root contains momordine (
Eastern Himalayas, India, east to China, Japan, Malaysia, tropical Australia. Found growing naturally all over Myanmar, except in cold areas.
In Indo-China the species is used as a strong purgative and emetic; on the Malay Peninsula the leaves are used to poultice boils; in Indonesia the leaves are one ingredient in a group of fresh plant parts from which the juice is extracted and used for medicines, the leaf juice is also drunk by children to treat diarrhea (
Damp and marshy places in temperate zone. Also reported from Myanmar.
This astringent plant, sharp in taste with cooling properties, induces perspiration, urination (and constipation).
The species is used in the treatment of abdomenal tumors (
Anti-inflammatory activity of the oil isolated from
Temperate and tropical Asia. Found growing naturally in lower Myanmar, along woods, hills, and especially stream banks.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Mon, Sagaing, and Shan.
In Upper Myanmar, the plant is considered to be a galactagogue.
In China the tubers are considered cooling and antidotal; used internally and externally as remedies for sore throat, boils, swelling, and poisonous snakebites In the Philippines the powder obtained from scraping the axial fruit (bulblets) is rubbed on the abdomen (
The tubers contain tannin, saponin, and alkaloids (
Widespread- China, including Taiwan; Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan (Okinawa), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Philippines, Vietnam; Africa, Australia, Pacific islands. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
The species can be made edible by prolonged washing alternately in salt and fresh water and then cooked, or by prolonged boiling with ashes of wood. The plant is also used for some medicinal purposes (exact uses not listed in
Tubers of the genus contain tannin, saponin, and alkaloids, some in greater, some in less quantity than others (the alkaloids are
India to Indonesia. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Mon, and Taninthayi.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Myanmar and Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.
Reported chemical constituents of this species are tannins, sterols, organic acids, aphrogenic principle, invertine, emulsine, a hydroquinonic principle, and diospyroquinone. The vermicidal property of the fruit is due to the presence of diospyroquinone (
Southern China, northeastern India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, it is found in Mon.
The plant has narcotic properties.
Old World tropical regions. Found growing on plains all over Myanmar, except in cold mountainous regions.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
A cyanogenetic glucoside, triacetonamine, and quebrachitol have been islolated from South African material of this species (
Pacific Islands, the exact origin is unknown. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The species has medicinal uses in Myanmar, but
The species has medicinal uses for ache, swelling, as a testicle altschul, and as a bacterioside (chemical found in plant shown to be effective for this purpose) (
Gallic acid, corilagin, and geraniin were isolated from an ethnol extract of the leaves of this species. These compounds were found to be responsible for the observed antimicorbioal activity (
Tropical Africa to northern South Africa, Egypt, Syria, Palestine and western Arabia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.
China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Guinea, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kayin, Mon, Rakhine, and Taninthayi.
In China a decoction of the leaf is taken internally for various ailments. From Hainan and Myanmar to Sumatra the leaves are used as a purgative, and the finely ground bark mixed with macerated leaves is rubbed onto the chest for congestion (
Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, southern China, and Indo-China. In Myanmar, found growing naturally throughout the country.
Hot and bitter in taste, used to control flatulence, regulate bowels, and cure diarrhea, clotting of blood, dysentery and boils. The plant, either taken orally or as an external application, is also considered very useful for inflammation.
Temperate and tropical Asia. Can be cultivated in the hot and humid parts of Myanmar, to altitudes of 610 m.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Chemical work done on the seeds and oil “reveals two active principles, one purgative but with non-irritant properties, the other (resin) irritant or vesicant”. The oil also contains oleic, linolic, arachidic, myristic, stearic, palmitic, acetic and formic acids, with traces of lauric, tiglic, valeric and butyric acids. The kernel, in addition, contains two toxic proteins, croton-globulin and carton-albumin; sucrose; and a glycoside, crotonoside. “The glycoside, at least in small doses, has no harmful physiological action.” The leaves contain hydrogen cyanide and a triterpinoid (
Native of Southeast Asia, especially India. Widespread in Myanmar.
In India the whole plant used for skin infections; latex, for dropsy, as nerve tonic, and for bronchitis (with ginger and bulb of
Chemical constituents of the plant include cycloartenol, epifriedelanol, euphol, euphorbol, friedelan-3alpha-ol, friedelan-3beta-ol, taraxerol, and taraxerone (
Pantropical weed. Widely distributed throughout Myanmar, growing naturally.
The medicinal uses of this species in South China, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and Indo-China are discussed in
Reported chemical constituents of the species include quercetin, triacontane, phytosterol, phytosterolin, jambulol (now identified as ellagic acid); melissic, gallic, palmitic, linolic, and oleic acids; euphosterol; also an alkaloid, xanthorhamnine. The plant also contains hydrogen cyanide and a triterpinoid, an extract of which “has some antibiotic activity on
India; perhaps also East Indies. Cultivated in Myanmar and elsewhere.
Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in
Mexico to South America; West Indies. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Tropical and subtropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
China, South and Southeast Asia. Naturalized in Myanmar.
In India the whole plant is used to remedy bile, phlegm, and swellings; a decoction of the root is applied to rheumatic areas and gout, as well as drunk to relieve flatulence (
From southern China to New Guinea and Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
Fruit used as an anthelmintic and laxative.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Research has shown that the dye from this species is an antioxidant; rottlerin is an antifertility factor, isorottlerin less active; the fruit extract is bactericidal; and the seeds contain 18.5–20% protein, 23.7–25.8% fat (
Tropical Africa. Although found wild in nature, now cultivated widely for the extraction of oil from the seeds. In Myanmar, does well in Sagaing, Mandalay, and Shan; prefers a warm temperate climate, but can also thrive in hot and dry areas. Found growing naturally on the banks of rivers, lakes and streams.
Sweet and rather bitter with heating properties, the plant is considered difficult to digest but generally effective at increasing sperm, regulating bowel movements, and controlling flatulence and phlegm.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in
The plant and its seeds can cause skin irritation (contact dermatitis). “The pomace (residue after extracting the oil from castor beans) can cause asthma, urticaria, and dermatitis among castor oil extractors…(Castor oil used in) lipstick can also be the source of contact dermatitis resulting in cheilitis…Cases of allergy to castor oil, contact dermatitis of the face due to a makeup remover and contact dermatitis due to sulfonated castor oil have recently been described…Ricinoleic acid has been claimed to be the agent causing lipstick dermatitis.” The seed contains a poisonous substance, the protein “ricin”, which is not present in castor oil, but is “probably responsible for certain allergies related to the plant” (
It has been reported that “Ricin”, a white crystalline compound isolated from castor beans (
Pantropical; widely naturalized. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
(
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Since the broken seed is conventionally known to be poisonous due to the necrotic action of its constituent chemical “abrin”, care must be taken in its use. Symptoms of the poisoning (which can happen, for example, from chewing or sucking on a necklace made of the beads) appear after a latent period which can vary from three hours to two days, whereupon severe gastroenteritis with diarrhea, cramps and vomiting occurs. Bleeding from the retina (of the eye) and serous (mucous) membranes is a characteristic symptom of the poisoning. In this connection it is notable that the seeds, under the name “semen jequirity”, were formerly used in medicine, especially ophthalmology, to cause inflammation of mucosa (
“The seeds are poisonous, but it is said that, if boiled, their toxic principle (toxalbumin) is destroyed. After this precautionary measure the seeds have been (known to be) boiled again in milk (which is used) as a tonic [in Dominica].” (
A pharmacognostical profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in
West Pakistan to Myanmar. In Myanmar, found in Magway and Mandalay.
Bark used as an astringent.
In India the bark is used to treat sores in the mouth, chest pain, strangulation of the intestine, and to facilitate childbirth. The heartwood is applied in a thick decoction for cancerous sores (
The species contains tannin and catechin (
Tropical and temperate Asia. Grows naturally throughout Myanmar, but most commonly in tropical evergreen forests; also cultivated.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Subtropical and tropical America; now pantropical. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The essence contains alcohol, sesquiterpene, and farnesol (
Western Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Siam, Indonesia, and Java. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Magway, Mandalay, and Shan.
In India the bark is used as an astringent (
Tropical Africa; widely naturalized in India. Naturalized in Myanmar.
In India the bark is employed as an astringent (
In Asia, found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam; also Indian Ocean- Andaman Islands. In Myanmar, found growing naturally throughout the country, but also cultivated.
In India the bark is used for dandruff and as an antidote to snake poison (
Southeastern Asia- primarily in India, southeastern China and Malasia to the Moluccas. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
“An alcoholic extract of air-dried leaves showed an alkaloidal substance” (
India and Southeast Asia.
In India the bark is used for diarrhea and dysentery; the leaf for night blindness; the flower is put on boils, carbuncles, swellings; the seed is used for plies, diarrhea, and gonorrhea; and the root is placed on spongy, ulcerated gums (
Sri Lanka and India to Thailand. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the bark, externally applied, is considered a good remedy for leprosy and for persistent ulcers; the leaf is applied as a poultice for ulcers (
The bark is rich in tannin (
Paleotropics. Found naturally in Myanmar, especially in the hot regions.
Has binding properties, brings down edema, causes dullness, cures diarrhea, dysentery, kidney stones and inability to pass urine. It also draws out the pus from sores.
Endemic to Myanmar (temperate southeastern Asia). Found in southern Myanmar, in Kayin and Taninthayi.
Plant used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in
Southern Brazil. Now widely cultivated throughout the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the fruit is used as an astringent (its oil is also astringent to the bowels), an aperient, and an emollient; also, unripe nuts are used for a lactagogue (
“The oilseed cake is a good source of the amino acid arginine … and glutamic acid, which is used in treating mental deficiencies” (
Believed to have originated, and is widely distributed in Indonesia, Malaysia and southern Thailand; also in Bangladesh. Reported from Myanmar.
India, Myanmar, China, Malaysia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
Root extract used as a poultice.
The rhizomes and root have been used for their insecticidal properties and have shown antifungal activity as well. Chemicals found in this species have been shown to be effective in the treatment of cold, cough, and sore throat; also for cataplasm and ulcers (
India, Myanmar, China, Malaysia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
In India the bark is used as an ingredient in medicine for dropsy, scorpion sting and insect bites, rheumatism, convulsions, stomach tumors, and as an antidote to certain toxins and poisons; the flower is used for indigestion (
Tropical Asia. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar, with the exception of the mountainous areas; grows most commonly by the sides of streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes.
The parts are used in preparations stimulating digestion, increasing sperm production, promoting repair of broken bone, and improving urinary flow.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
East Indies. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In Indo-China a decoction of the stem and leaves is used in a local bath to treat hemorrhoids; also considered sedative in a large bath and sprinkled over the body of a person with convulsions. It is also used for erectile dysfunction (
Original range variously ascribed to tropical America or tropical Asia.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Pantropical.
In China, the whole plant is pounded and applied to boils; the seed is used as a bechic, stomatic, and tonic, also to strengthen the kidney (
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
India, Sri Lanka. Grows naturally all over Myanmar; prefers a hot and humid climate but also does well in hot and dry climates; can be found and cultivated up to 1220 m altitude; also grown as ornamental trees.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The chemistry, pharmacology, history, and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by
Tropical Asia, tropical Africa and Australia. In Myanmar found in Yangon.
The medicinal use of this species, as well as those of several other members of the genus, is noted in
Origin uncertain, probably tropical Africa or Asia. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
In India the leaf is used on swellings, the seed as a laxative, the root for goiter and leprosy, and an unspecified part for snakebite (
Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Arabia, Somomali Republic, Socotra. In Myanmar, found in Magway and Mandalay.
In India the leaf is used for diarrhea; the seed as an anthelmintic, diuretic, deobstruent; for stomach problems, skin diseases, leucoderma, leprosy, scorpion sting, and snakebite (
In India, oleorsin extract is used locally on leprosy (
India, Indo-China, and Malesia. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Rakhine, and Taninthayi.
Seasonally dry areas of western and northern Madagascar. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
The bark of this species is employed as a febrifuge in Indo-China. The gum which oozes from it “is similar to gum arabic” (
The leaves contain saponin and alkaloid (
Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by
Pantropical. Reported from Myanmar.
In China the plant is considered anti-cancer; also used for splenititis with high temperature and as a wash for itch, pityriasis, and wounds. The seed is used to treat hemorrhoids in children (
The seeds contain oil with palmitic-, stearic-, lignoceric-, linoleic-, and oleic acid, raffinoe, traces of alkaloid, and steroids; the seed, stem, and bark contain saponin A and B; and the stem and root bark contain HCN. Also, the seed has entagenic acid, a saponin active against a type of carcinosarcoma in rats (
Tanzania to India, Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands (var.
Least Concern [
In India the bark is used for convulsion and for paralysis of the tongue (given with roots of two other plants); also for pimples, cough and cold, and snakebite (
Chemical constituents include hydrocyanic acid in the stems, leaves, fruit, and roots; and two alkaloids, erythraline and hypaphorine, in the seeds. Resins, fixed oils, fatty acids, hypaphorine, betaine, choline, potassium chloride, and potassium carbonate are present in the bark (
Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand.Widely distributed in Myanmar.
This species has been studied for its anti-cancer and antiviral activities (
India to the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady and Yangon.
On the Malay Peninsula and in the Philippines, a decoction of the root of this species is administered as a post partum protective medicine, and the leaves are employed at the same time to wash the body; also used in a lotion to treat rheumatism., Additionally, in the Philippines a decoction or infusion of the leves and flowers is prescribed for tuberculosis (
Southeast Asia. Now widely cultivated in the Orient and elsewhere. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The seeds are regarded as a tonic, diuretic, febrifuge, and antidote. Also, the seeds in combination with other drugs are used to treat a large number of ailments. “It was observed many years ago that natives in the Orient ate infested meat products without ill effects, if soy sauce was a part of the meal” (
The species is said to assist the flow of digestive juices, increase the assimilation of high protein foods, and to be a source of riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, panthotheic acid, and choline. An antibiotic, canavalin, has been found in the plant, which is useful in treating certain pneumococci. Results of research by the Soya Corporation of America have lead to the production of an “edible antibiotic that counteracts various types of harmful bacteria through implantation of beneficial intestinal flora”. Raw soybeans contain a
Pakistan, India, Myanmar, China, Siam, and Indochina. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, and Shan.
In India the powdered root of this species is externally applied for chest pain; a decoction of the root is used for coughs. Medicinal uses for several other species belonging to this genus are also discussed (
Probably Old World; now widespread.
In India the seed is used for a febrifuge, an antispasmodic, a stomachic, and an aphrodisiac (
Tropical America, Asia. Found in Upper Myanmar, in Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
China; Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal; Myanmar, Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Mandalay, and Taninthayi.
In China the whole plant is used as a tonic and to induce the growth of red blood cells (
Pantropical, originating in the Neotropics (thought probably native to South America). Grows naturally all over Myanmar.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Seeds of
Himalyas, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kayin, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.
Known for a bitter-sweet taste, cooling properties, and control of flatulence and gall bladder.
In India the root is used as a tonic, diuretic, purgative; for nervous and renal diseases, dropsy; and for elephantiasis. The hairs on the pods are employed for stomach worms; the seed is used for impotency, urinary calculus, tonic, and as an aphrodisiac (
The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by
China, Japan, Taiwan; India, Nepal, Sri Lanka; Indo-China; Malesia; Australia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
In China the root is used for burning sensation in the abdomen (
Mexico to northwestern South America. Introduced and cultivated in India and Pakistan. Introduced into Myanmar.
In India the bark is used in a decoction as an enema (
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaya. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal use of the species in East and Southeast Asia are discussed in
Tropical America; now pantropical. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
The plant contains chrysarobin, and chrysarophanic acid; rhein in the leaf; and oxymethyl anthraquinone in the fruit; sometimes with HCN (
Egypt, Sudan to Nigeria. Cultivated in India and Myanmar.
The leaflets of this species contain cassic acid or “hein,” an antibiotic substance effective against
Pakistan Madhya Pradesh and Western Peninsula, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India a decoction of the whole plant is used for diabetes and diuresis; the bark is astringent in skin diseases, also used for sore throat (gargle); the leaf and fruit are anthelmintic; a decoction of the flower buds, or whole plant, is used for diabetes and diuresis; the seed is used for ophthalmia, diabetes and chylous urine, as well as for conjunctivitis (finely powdered decorticated seeds as dusting powder); and the root is astringent (
Native to Chile. Widespread in Myanmar.
This species is used in East and Southeast Asian countries as a laxative (
Southeast Asia and East Indies. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In Indonesia a decoction of the young leaves is used to treat malaria. In a number of Asian countries, stem wood is an ingredient in recipes used to make a decoction to treat liver trouble, urticaria (nettle rash), loss of appetite from gastrointestinal trouble, and rhinitis (
Chemical research has revealed the presence of a poisonous alkaloid (
Cultivated in Myanmar.
West Indies, Central and South America, and parts of North America. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
In India the leaf is used for skin diseases, as a laxative (decoction), on cuts, for eczema (paste) and bone fracture (leaves pounded with egg albumen, and applied as plaster), as a vermicide (infusion), and for indigestion (powder); also, young leaves are eaten to prevent skin disease; the seed is used for skin diseases, ringworm, and for eczema (
The species contains aloe-emodin (antitumor), aurantio obtusin, chrysophanol, emodin, obtusin, physcion, rhein, rubrofusarin, torachryon, toralactone. Also, due to unnamed glycosides, aqueous and ethanol seed extracts possess hypotensive and bradycardiac actions (
Tropical Asia; naturalized in southern Florida and the West Indies; and widely cultivated in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Uses of this species in India, Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and the Philippines are discussed in
Old World tropics; tropical Asia. In Myanmar found in Sagaing.
In India the leaf is used in a poultice for suppuration of boils and rheumatic swelling. The seed is employed as a stimulant and astringent emmenagogue; also for diarrhea, spleen enlargement, and in ointments for skin eruptions (
Extracts from the flower of this species show antifertility activity (
Asia: China; Indian subcontinent, including Bhutan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka; Indo-China, including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Least Concern [
In Indonesia two other members of the genus are used medicinally: 1.
Asia- Bhutan, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, Ryukyu Island, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan; Australasia; Indian Ocean Islands; Pacific Ocean Islands. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.
In India the leaf is used for cough, cold, and abdominal pain; the root for snakebite (
The leaves have been found to contain tannin, silicic acid, and potassium oxide (
Origin unknown, possibly tropical Asia or Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Pharmacognostic characters and Thai ethnomedical use of this species are discussed in Somanabandhu et al. (1986). Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by
Southern Asia, Australia, tropical Africa, south to Natal; introduced in tropical America. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
In India the whole plant is used as a tonic for impotency and gonorrhea; a decoction, employed as a vermifuge, is made from the fruit. Oil obtained from the seeds is used for scabies, itch, eczema, and other skin diseases. The root is used for dyspepsia, diarrhea, rheumatism, fever, snakebite, asthma, urinary disorders, colic; also as a liniment on elephantiasis. An unspecified plant part is used as a tonic, laxative, and diuretic; also for bronchitis, febrile effects, bleeding piles, boils, and pimples (
Native to Bangladesh, Cambodia, eastern India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Introduced into Africa, Philippines, Singapore. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the bark is used to treat gonorrhea, diarrhea, stop vomiting, and as a vermifuge (
India and China south to New Guinea. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the whole plant is used as a tonic for fevers and as a stomachic (
Eastern Asia - Himalayas.
A bitter. Plant [part(s) not given] used as an aperient and as a tonic. Dried plant imported to Indo-China and Malaya where it is used as a febrifuge. Used with success in a majority of fevers, especially typhoid.
In India the whole plant is used as a bitter, stomachic, anthelmintic, febrifuge, as well as for malarial fever, asthma, and liver disorders. Also taken with sandalwood in a paste to heal internal hemorrhage of stomach. A decoction of the root (with root of
Reported constituents include chiratin, chiratogenin, ophelic acid, resin, and tannin (
Tropical America, Africa, and southeastern Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Yangon.
Least Concern [
In Cambodia, India, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere, leaves are used for intestinal disorders; macerated leaves are applied as poultice to callous difficult ulcers for soothing and healing properties; also said to possess some antiseptic properties (
Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Lower Risk/least concern [
Several species in the genus
China, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka. Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Kayin, and Sagaing.
On the Malay Peninsula the pounded leaves are used to poultice sores and a decoction is drunk to relieve stomachache; in China this species is used by herbalists to treat influenza in infants (
Temperate and tropical Asia; grows naturally all over Myanmar; especially reported from Kachin and Magway.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
South and southeastern Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the leaf is used for headache; also ground with leaves of
Reported constituents of the leaves of this species include clerodin (anthemintic property); glycerides of linolenic, oleic, stearic, and lignoceric acids; a sterol; a proteinase; and a peptidase (
West and West-Central tropical Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Plant used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in
Other members of the genus are reported as used medicinally in India, China, Thailand, Korea, and Japan for the treatment of such diseases as syphilis, typhoid, cancer, jaundice, and hypertension (
Major chemical compounds have been reported from this genus. These include phenolics, steroids, di- and tri-terpenes, flavonoids, volatile oils, etc. (
China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Chin and Kachin.
In India the stem is used for cough; the leaf to treat wounds and eye problems (
From India to southeastern Asia.
In India the bark is used for cholera, swelling and choking in the throat (with garlic), rheumatism, epilepsy, dropsy, and anasarca, convulsion (with bark of
Eastern Asia: Himalayas from Afghanistan to western China. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Chin, Kayah, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the whole plant is used as a diaphoretic and stimulant; the juice for scabies. The leaf is used to treat dysentery and diarrhea; the flower for cough syrup and fever. A twig with flowers and seed is pounded in mustard oil and 2–3 drops are put in the ear to stop pus formation (
Europe and Asia. Cultivated throughout Myanmar, but thrives most in temperate climates.
Least Concern [
Sharp and efficacious in taste with fragrant smell.
The medical uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical and subtropical. Asia, tropical Africa. Found naturally all over country, especially in the hot zone. Grows up to 915 m altitude. Cultivated.
Can control gas and phlegm, congestion, and indigestion; can degrade bile. Plant also used as a diuretic.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Old World tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents of the volatile oil of
Temperate and tropical Asia, Australia. Found cultivated throughout Myanmar.
This plant is most well-known as a diuretic and as a medicine for diabetes.
In India the leaf is used as a diuretic, for nephrosis, and for edema; also used in an infusion for kidney and bladder diseases and rheumatism (
Reported chemical constituents include a glucoside and orthosiphon. The leaves contain volatile and essential oils; both the leaves and stems have a high potassium content, urea, and ureids (
Native of southeastern Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India an infusion of the leaf is used for menstrual troubles (
The species has been used in China for 100 years. The branches and leaves of
The whole plant is antiseptic and the oil is bactericidal (
Pakistan and Sri Lanka to Myanmar. Now also in other Southeast Asian countries. Reported from Myanmar.
Most members of this genus are employed in the treatment of fever; also headache, stomachache, and toothache. Other frequent uses are as a diuretic and laxative, for cold and cough, and also for boils (
China, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Philippines, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the stem-bark is used for ringworm and blisters in the mouth; the leaf as a diuretic and for dropsy; and the root for syphilis and gonorrhea (
The bark of the trunk contains two alkaloids, premnine and ganiarin. Premnine has bee found to lessen the force of heart contraction and dilate the pupils of the eyes (
Himalaya (Nepal to Bhutan), India. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay, Rakhine, Taninthayi.
In India the leaf is used as a carminative, galactagogue, and in a decoction for flatulence and colic; the root is used as a laxative, stomachic, tonic, and is a component of the Ayurvedic drug dasmula used for fever (
Tropical Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In Africa, leaf-sap and a root-decoction are drunk as an anti-malarial (
South and southeastern Asia, and eastern Africa. Found growing naturally throughout the country, but especially in Upper Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Northern and central Spain to West Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
Species used as a topical antiseptic and orally as a carminative and spasmolytic.
The species is astringent, a stimulant, and is put into a gargle for sore throat (
The leaf and tops of young shoots yield an oil, which is carminative (
Asia: India and Myanmar to Java, occasional on other islands. Species grows naturally throughout Myanmar below 915 m altitude.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Bangladesh, India; Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam; Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore; Australia; cultivated and naturalized elsewhere. Reported from Myanmar.
In India the bark and root are used as an astringent (
Southeastern Africa, Madagascar, eastern and southeastern Asia, Philippine Islands, Guam; naturalized in Florida.
In China the stem-twigs are decocted for burns and scalds, and a twig infusion is used for anxiety, convulsions, cough, headache, and vertigo; the leaf is astringent, sedative, used for cholera, eczema, and gravel; the fruit for angina, cold, cough, deafness, gonorrhea, hernia, leucorrhea, and rheumatic difficulties; the root for colds and rheumatic ailments. The plant is also said to prevent malaria, and is used for bacterial dysentery and chronic bronchitis (
The leaves are bactericidal and insecticidal, and yield essential oil with aldehydes and ketones, phenolic derivatives, and cineol (
Asia to Australia. Found growing in warmer parts of Myanmar, up to 915 m altitude.
The medicinal uses of the species in India are discussed in
The essential oil of this species yields camphene, and pinene, terpenylacetate; the leaves contain aucubin, agunuside, casticin, orientin, isoorientin, and luteolin-7-glucoside; and the fruit contains vitricine. Leaf extracts have been found to inhibit the tuberculosis organism and also show anti-cancer activity (
Seacoast. South and southeastern Asia, Australia, and Pacific Islands. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the fruit is used for infertility; the root for venereal disease (
The leaves contain an alkaloid-like compound, sterols, an aliphatic alcohol, an aliphatic ketone with glucose, fructose, sacccharose, resin, and gum (
Tropical and temperate Asia. Grows naturally throughout Myanmar, with the exception of the hot zone; especially found in Bago, Mandalay, and Sagaing.
Note: The interaction of the bark powder with jaggery can be fatal. Use of the bark powder for any treatment requires avoiding consumption of jaggery and all other sweet foods.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
China, Taiwan, Japan. Cultivated all over Myanmar; also, grows naturally in the temperate northern parts of the country.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by
Himalayas, in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and West Pakistan. In Myanmar, a cultivar that thrives in Tanintharyi Division, upper Chindwin, northern Shan State, Bamaw, and Rakhine State.
Sri Lanka and southwestern India. Found growing naturally not only in evergreen tropical forests, but also in other places around Myanmar.
Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
“The bark is official in many modern pharmacopeias.” and the species has been used in medicine and as a spice since ancient times. Reported constituents of its volatile oil include cinnamic aldehyde, hydrcinnamic aldehyde, benzaldehyde, cuminic aldehyde, nonylic aldehyde, eugenol, caryophyllene, 1-phellandrine, p-cymene, pinene, methyl-n-amyl ketone, and 1-linalol (
Eastern Asia, East Indies and South Pacific Islands to Hawaii. Found throughout Myanmar, especially Mandalay and Shan; cultivated.
In India the rhizome is eaten with betel (
India to northern Australia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India a decoction of the bark is used as a mouthwash for toothache and gum pain; the stem is used for toothache; leaf juice is used for diarrhea; the fruit is used for nasal catarrh; the seed for liver problems; and an unspecified part, in a mixture with herbs, is used to treat cholera (
Myanmar to the Malay Peninsula. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the bark is used for snakebite; the flower for prolapsus ani and fistula ani, also in preparations for cold and cough (
Eastern Asia - Himalayas. Cultivated in Myanmar. Found abundantly in Kachin State and other northern parts covered in ice; plants live under the ice and emerge only with melting of the ice.
Root (Bulb): With a bitter yet savory taste, the bulbs are said to promote longevity. They are considered very important to humans, and help to increase waning body heat. The plant is used to prevent and alleviate sores, asthma, anemia, dry coughs, cysts, problems with blood vessels and varicose veins; also aching joints, urination problems, chronic illnesses, and fevers. To cure asthma and leprosy, the bulb is powdered, boiled together with orange (tangerine) skin, and ingested. One teaspoon of a mixture of bulb powder soaked in half a large bottle (most likely 750 ml) of honey is taken (once in the morning and once at night) for male-related conditions. The bulb powder is also used to promote good sleep, appetite, and longevity.
The species has been recorded as medicinally useful for abcess, snakebite and as a scorpion and spider antidote; as an expectorant and for cough, asthma, fever, eye, viscera; labor, lactogogue; rheumatism, dysuria, hemorrhage, marrow, cancer, tuberculosis, syphilis; poison (
Probably Asia; an ancient cultigen, widely grown in temperate regions for fiber, and seed for linseed oil. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the bark and leaf are used to treat gonorrhea; the flower is a cardiac tonic and nervine; dried ripe seeds are used as a demulcent poultice for rheumatism and gout, as well as employed internally for gonorrhea and urinogenital irritations; and the seed’s oil is mixed with limewater and applied to burns (
The oilseed cake contains the amino acid arginine and 4% dry weight glutamic acid. L-glutamic acid is used in its free state in the treatment of metal deficiencies in infants and adolescents (
Tropical Africa, tropical Asia, especially eastern India and eastern Myanmar. Found growing naturally not only in evergreen tropical forests, but also elsewhere around the country.
Note:
In India a paste made from the root is applied locally to painful areas (mainly due to internal injury); the seed is used for a tonic, demulcent, stomachic, sedative, emetic and also for diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and eye troubles (
China, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.
In India a decoction made from the root is used for elephantiasis, ulcers, rheumatism, epilepsy, and fever (
India to Southeast Asia and Australia.
In India the bark and leaf are used as a purgative; the fruit is applied locally for aphthae of the mouth; the seed is used as a narcotic; and the root as a febrifuge, stimulant, and astringent (
Reported constituents of leaves include tannin, glucose, and an antidiabetic principle; also an unnamed alkaloid has been found in the seed (
Southeastern Europe to South Asia. Also naturalized, and widespread in cultivation.
Least Concern [
The plant is widely cultivated for its edible fruit and medicinal uses: The bark is used in a gargle for sore throat, bad breath, and as a wash for nosebleed (for the first two illnesses a decoction of the rind is used); a decoction of tender leaves serves as a gargle and another of the leaves and roots is drunk as a remedy for irregular menses; a plaster of the crushed leaves is applied to itch; crushed stem is similarly used; the fruit is rich in tannin (and thus astringent); a decoction of the rinds or fruit is used for diarrhea and dysentery and may also be applied as a wash or an injection against hemorrhoid and leucorrhea; the buds, flowers, and bark of the flowers mixed with sesame oil makes a dressing for burns; the fruit is both bechic and laxative; the root bark is used throughout the East as a specific for tapeworm, and is also anthelmintic against other intestinal worms (
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by
The bark contains the alkaloids pelletierine, isopelletierine, methylpelletierine, pseudopelletierine, and considerable tannin; it has also been reported that the plant has a bacteriostatic effect (
The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by
Southeast Asia, including Madagascar, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China, and Indonesia. In Myanmar found in Chin and Mandalay.
Lower Risk/least concern [
On the Malay Peninsula the species is as an ingredient of a preparation to make a barren women fertile, a powder spread on a mother’s abdomen, and a drink given at the time of childbirth. In Indonesia the charred and pulverized fruit-bearing twigs provide an astringent powder sprinkled on wounds, and on the navel cord of newborn babies; the flower, leaf and fruit are used as an astringent to treat dysentery and sprue, as a diuretic against rheumatism, and also in treating dysuria and hematuria (
Reported constituents include a tannin and a red pigment (
Temperate and tropical Asia. Plant grows naturally in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
Plant sweet and astringent with cooling properties, the flowers, leaves, fruits, bark, and roots are employed in medicines to increase sperm, promote heart function, and control bile and phlegm, as well as in preparations to alleviate vomiting and hemorrhaging of blood, urethral pain, leprosy, poisoning, itching, rashes, and sores.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported chemical constituents of the species include volatile oil, cineole, isoeugenol, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde, p-cresol methyl ether, and alkaloid (alkaloid of the bark tested and found to not be poisonous) (
Sri Lanka, southeastern Asia, Philippine Islands, Taiwan. From Myanmar to Timor. Cultivated in the tropics.
In Indonesia the pounded bark is applied to fresh wounds (
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
A glycoside-like substance, hiptagin, has been found in this species (
Tropical Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the root is used in a decoction for impotency (
Medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Tropical Asia. In Myanmar, found in Magway, Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.
In India the seed is used as a stimulant, antispasmodic, stomachic, tonic, carminative, and aphrodisiac (
Himalayas, northern India, east to China, Micronesia, and Malaysia. In Myanmar, found in Kachin.
The plant is used for menstrual disorder (part unspecified by
In India fresh or dried root-bark is used as a uterine tonic and emmenagogue; fresh juice is used for congestive and neuralgic dysmenorrhea (
The root-bark contains little alkaloid, much glucoside, resinous matter, much magnesium salts, calcium, and phosphates (
Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by
Tropical America; said to have originated in South America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The seeds, roots, flowers, and leaves are employed.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are discussed by
Origin in Central America, Mexico and Greater Antilles
Same as
Medicinal uses of “
The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment and beneficial uses of
Native to southern India. Now widely cultivated in tropical countries. Reported from Myanmar.
In India the bark is demulcent; the leaf is put on eruptions; the fruit is astringent, cooling, and stomachic; and the root-bark is used for rheumatism (
China, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Shan.
China, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Mandalay, Mon, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the whole plant is used for syphilitic ulcers and eczema, and the leaf is narcotic (
Northwestern Himalayas east to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
Reported medicinal uses for this species include treatment of headache, tiger bite, carbuncle, cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, eye, and sores (
Malay Archipelago. In Myanmar, found in Kachin and Taninthayi.
In India the leaf is used for stomachache; the fruit for stomach disorders and rickets in babies; the seed for stomach pain and dysentery, also the oil is massaged on body to relieve pain; the root for stomachache on sores and carbuncles (in combination with other plants), and for colic (
Probably Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Africa; now widely cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the enlarged succulent calyx is boiled in water, and the resulting drink used for biliousness; the leaf, calyx and seed are used as an antscorbutic and diuretic; and the fruit is used as an antiscorbutic (
Due to its high intestinal antiseptic action, the species is used in treating arteriosclerosis (
Tropical East Africa. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical and subtropical regions of Old World. In Myanmar, found in Yangon.
Antiviral activity has been detected utilizing an extract of the plant (
Tropical Asia, tropical eastern Africa, and Australia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In the Philippines a decoction of the leaves of this species provides a treatment for scabies, and also locally for all forms of dermatisis (
The species contains prussic acid, a triterpinoid, and an essential oil (
Sikkim to Indochina. Also cultivated; propagated by seeds and cuttings. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
The species is used as anodyne, for pain, and as a sialogogue (
Tropical regions in both Old and New Worlds. In Myanmar, found in Kachin and Sagaing.
In India the leaf is used as a salve to both cool and heal inflamed wounds and sores; the flower is used as a diaphoretic and pectoral (
India, Myanmar, Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay and Taninthayi.
Several medicinally useful chemicals have been extracted from the heartwood of this species: Among these are coumarin derivitives, mansorins and mansonones, which have shown antiestrogenic activity; also mansorins which have shown antifungal, antioxidant, and antilarval activity (
India to Java. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the plant is considered antiseptic, depurative, and tonic; also employed for eruptions, fever, inflammation, leprosy, menorrhagia, puerperium, smallpox, sores, and tumors (
In South China a tincture of the root of another species in the genus,
Pantropical.
Throughout the tropics. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In China the plant is used for abscesses and other skin problems (
Tropical regions of both hemispheres. Grows naturally throughout Myanmar.
Reported medicinal uses for this species include the treatment of headache, stomachache, gastritis, diarrhea, sore throat, fever, inflammation, colic, bronchitis, pneumonia, and as an expectorant; for sores, wounds, eruptions, boils, swelling, burns; as diuretic, for bladder and urogenital problems, and gonorrhea; for blennorrhagia, cataplasm, dysentery, hepataitis, pleurisy, dysentery, hematochezia, and yaws; as hemostat, emmenagogue, and anodyne; also as an emollient, for gingivitis, and for hangovers (
Tropical America; now pantropic in distribution. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The rhizome, rich in starch, serves as a food for invalids. It is also used as an emollient, for diseases of the urinary tract, and for bowel complaints (
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in
China, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Vietnam; native of Central America, introduced and naturalized elsewhere. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Reported medicinal uses for this species include alexiteric, adenopathy, alopecia, carbuncle, epilepsy, inflammation, scabies, sores, sore throat, and gargle (
India, southeastern Asia, Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, and the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the bark of the species is used for skin diseases; the leaf for smallpox and wounds; and the root for diarrhea and dysentery (
Tropical India. In Myanmar, found in Kayin, Rakhine, Taninthayi, Yangon.
In Indo-China an infusion of the bark and leaves is used to treat fever; in India a decoction of the roots is used as an emmenagogue, and an infusion of the leaves is astringent and used to treat ophthalmia (
Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady and Rakhine.
Data Deficient [
Potent cytotoxic rocaglamide derivatives have been extracted from the fruits of this species (
Low to middle elevations in mountainous regions. Sri Lanka, southeastern Asia, Sumatra; Pacific Islands (Solomon islands). In Myanmar, found in Taninthayi and Yangon.
Lower Risk/least concern [
In Taiwan oil pressed out of the seed is used in medicine, also industry; in Indonesia a decoction of the bark is ingested as a remedy for chest pain associated with a cold (
Powderd bark is used to treat diseases of the liver, including jaundice; enlarged spleen; anemia; internal tumors; abdominal diseases, including ascitis; intestinal worms; and urinary disorders; also a root paste is used for leucorrhoea (
The sap from a tapped tree is said to be
Tropical Asia; also cultivated. Grows naturally in the hot regions of Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Details of the active chemical compounds, effects, herbal usage, and pharmacological literature of this plant are given in
Myanmar, Andamans, China, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Pakistan. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.
Lower Risk/least concern [
In India the bark is used as a tannin-containing astringent (
Hainan and North Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In Hainan and North Vietnam, as well as on the Malay Peninsula, a decoction of the leaves is given to treat cholera; the seeds are
Believed originally native to former Indochina and Peninsular Malaysia. Rare wild, but commonly cultivated from Thailand and Indo-China into southeastern Asia. In Myanmar found in Ayeyarwady, Kayin, Mon, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the root is used for dysentery and diarrhea; it is an astringent, aromatic, antispasmodic, stomachic and carminative (
India and Indo-China south to Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Shan, and Yangon.
In India the bark is applied externally to ulcers, used for chronic infantile dysentery, antiperient, tonic, and astringent; the flower is used as an enmenagogue (
An extract of the leaves has antibiotic activity against
Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, South China, Taiwan, Indo-China, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Philippines, Moluccas, and New Guinea.
The bark (rich in tannin) is astringent (
Mangrove forests. China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; East Africa; and West Pacific islands. In Myanmar found in Ayeyarwady, Rakhine, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Throughout most of Old World tropics to Australia, Fiji, and Tonga.
Least Concern [
Pantropic, especially India and Pakistan. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Sagaing, and Taninthayi.
In Indo-China a decoction of the roots is used for colic and blennorrhea; in the Philippines leaves are antiscabious, also applied to snakebites; a decoction of the roots is diuretic, lithontriptic, pectoral, febrifuge, diaphoretic, emmanagogue, tonic, and sedative; roots are chewed and juice swallowed for abdominal pains and dysentery (
The chemical composition of the species includes alkaloids, hayatine, hayatinine, quecitol, and sterol
Tropical Asia. Naturalized and cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical regions of Pakistan, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar in damp forests and on hills.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia to Philippine Islands and Fiji. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, Mon, Sagaing, and Yangon.
In India the seed is used for dysentery and as a febrifuge (
Reported chemical constituents of this species include a toxic glycoside; alpha-, beta-, gamma-antiarin; antiarol; and fats (
India. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the leaf is fried with the leaves of
The latex contains caoutchouc, resin, and cerotic acid (
Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this plant are given in
India to Myanmar. Cultivated for edible fruit. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In India the bark and exudation are used externally for spleen complaints; the seed is used as a purgative (
The stem yields two triterpenes, B-amyrin acetate and lupeol acetate (
India, southeastern Asia, the Malay Archipelago, and northern tropical Australia. In Myanmar, found in Rakhine and Yangon.
In India the milky juice of the plant is used to treat whitening of the cornea of the eye; a decoction of the leaf, mixed with oil, is applied externally to ulcers (
Cerotic acid has been found in the milky sap (
Tropical Asia from India to northern Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Used to treat diabetes (plant part not given in
In India the bark, fruit, and seed are employed as an emetic and purgative (
The bark contains tannin, wax, a caoutchouc, and a glucoside principle; the latex contains an alcohol extract and a chloroform extract (
Tropical Asia. Grows naturally throughout Myanmar; also cultivated there.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Malay Peninsula to Borneo. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In China “The fruits, in liquor, are both internally and externally an anodyne to treat contusions; the boiled leaves and buds are a treatment for conjunctivitis…”; the aerial roots are part of a lotion rubbed on rheumatic parts and swollen feet; and the ashes (after burning in bamboo) are used as an application for toothache (
China, Pakistan, Bhutan, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar found in Bago, Rakhine, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Asia. In Myanmar found in Bago, Kachin, and Yangon.
In India the bark and fruit are made into a bath for the treatment and cure of leprosy; the fruit is used for aphthous complaints; and juice from the root is used for bladder maladies, juice also boiled in milk for visceral disorders (
China, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Sagaing, and Taninthayi.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The bark “contains a bitter material resembling the poisonous principle of
India. Widely cultivated and naturalized in the tropics. Found throughout Myanmar. Also, cultivated there as a vegetable.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are described in
Chemical constituents, pharmacological action, and medicinal use of this species in Indian Ayurveda are discussed in detail by
Data on the propagation, seed treatment, and agricultural management of this species are given by
East Indies. A cultivar that thrives in Tanintharyi Division, Myeik and Mawlamyaing townships; likes hot and humid climates; prefers ravines close to coastal areas.
Data Deficient [
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Traditional medicinal uses, chemical constituents and pharmacological activity of this species are discussed by
Nutmeg contains myristicin, a hallucinogenic substance that is dangerous when ingested in large amounts (fewer than three seeds). One product of the fruits and flowers of
Tasmania, Australia. Grows as a cultivar in Myanmar’s temperate zone, but can also be cultivated throughout the country.
Sharp and hot in taste, the leaves, oil, sap, and roots are used in medicinal preparations.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
A pharmacological profile including medicinal uses of this plant in Africa is given in
Cultivated in China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Reported from Myanmar.
In China the species is used as a disinfectant; in Indo-China it is used in an embrocation for rheumatism and joint pain, as a local analgesic, and the oil may be inhaled for rhinitis and colds, also used in surgery; in Cambodia “the leaves of a special variety are used in an infusion to treat dropsy”; on the Malay Peninsula a minute portion of the oil is dropped on sugar to treat colic and cholera, and is also a fragrant stomachic and an anodyne (
Reported constituents include cajuputol (“identical with eucalyptol or cineole”), terpenol, 1-pinene, and aldehydes (
New World tropics.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by
Uses of this plant in the Upper Amazon region, including preparations of the flowers for helping to regulate menstrual periods, are given by
The Moluccas. Widely cultivated in warm regions. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Paste made from cloves is mixed with rock sugar syrup and licked to cure morning sickness. Cloves are crushed together with
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
India and Sri Lanka, east to Malay Archipelago. Cultivated in tropical regions. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents include gallic acid, tannin, volatile oil, fat, antimellin, jambuol, olein, linolein, palmitin, sterarin, phytosterin, myricyl alcohol, and hentriacontane (
Indo-Malaysian region. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the bark is employed for rheumatism and pneumonia; the leaf as a decoction for eye sores; the fruit for liver problems (
From China south throughout Southeast Asia, and northern Australia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Rakhine, and Shan.
In India the bark is used for rheumatism and pneumonia; the leaf for rheumatism and dry fomentation; the fruit for rheumatism; and the root boiled and rubbed on joints (
Chemical constituents of the plant include aromatic volatile oil, a little tannin, traces of methylchavicol, and alkaloid similar to caffeine (
Pantropical. In Myanmar grows naturally on plains throughout the country.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The plant contains an active alkaloid, punarnavine, and it is believed that a high content of potassium salts enhances the powerful diuretic action of the alkaloid (
Native of Brazil. Cultivated elsewhere.
Plant used for medicinal purposes (exact uses not given in
Traditional practitioners in Mandsaur use the leaves for a variety of disorders, including the treatment of diarrhea and to reduce stomach acidity; the species is used elsewhere as follows- for cough and sore throat, a decoction of dried flowers (in water) is used for blood vessels and leucorrhea, a decoction of dried stems (in water) is used for hepatitis (
China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In Indonesia the crushed leaves of the species are smeared onto spots of scabies previously scoured open (
Tropical America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The toxic properties, symptoms, treatment, and beneficial uses of this plant are discussed by
Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Common in warmer parts of Myanmar.
Least Concern [
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Sri Lanka, India, southeastern Asia, West Malesia.
The species is used as a laxative (
Himalayas of western China. In Myanmar, found in Shan.
In India the milky juice from the whole plant is given to destroy the unhealthy lining-walls of chronic fistulas and sinuses; the flower is employed as an astringent and tonic for bowels and heart; and the root is used for ringworm (
India. In Myanmar found in Chin, Kachin, Shan, and Yangon.
In India a poultice is made from dried leaves soaked in water and placed on indolent ulcers to promote healing; the flower is used as an emetic (
A tannin-like bitter principle has been found, and an amorphous substance “which seems to be an alkaloid” has been isolated (
Asia; cultivated in many places. Plant found throughout Myanmar; cultivated as an ornamental plant.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The bitter leaves contain tannic acid and methyl salicylate; the later may be an active agent against rheumatism (
From Taiwan to the Philippines. Reported in Myanmar.
In the areas within its range, the species is employed mostly as a tonic and hematic to treat impotence and barrenness or sterility; also a decoction of the plant is used a tonic and an antipyretic drunk as a remedy for dysmenorrhea, and to stimulate the secretion of hormones (
Malay region; cultivated and often naturalized in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the fruit is an antiscorbutic, and cooling; dried fruit is used for fever; ripe fruit is used for bleeding piles, to relieve thirst, and to calm febrile excitation (
Florida to Central America; West Indies.
The juice is used as a treatment for edema.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
While the oil of this species is not toxic in small amounts, a toxic substance has been isolated from it; two alkaloids, berberine and protopine, are present (
New World tropics. Native to the West Indies and northern South America. Naturalized in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Native to New Word tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition, and toxicity of this species are discussed by
Tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the seed is used in a “poultice applied externally to ulcers; for piles; as an emmenagogue in a decoction; for a lactagogue, emollient, diuretic, and tonic. Seeds and oil are mixed with other medicines for use as a demulcent for urinary problems and dysentery” (
Reported chemical constituents include fixed oil, lethicin, choline, phytin, globulin, sesamin, and the amino acid arginine (
China, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Mandalay, and Shan.
In Indo-China the bark, mixed with other ingredients (from other plant species), is antidysenteric, also a vermifuge; the flowers are part of a complex preparation to treat fever (
Tropical Asia. In Myanmar, found in Kachin, Mandalay, and Shan.
In India juice from the leaf is used to cure sores (
China, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the bark is used as a liniment for rheumatism (with gingili oil), and as a contraceptive (
Southern Asia. Naturalized in the West Indies and southern Florida. Reported from Myanmar.
In India the leaf is used as an antidote to viper poison; the fruit is an astringent; the seed cathartic; and the root cathartic and an antidote to viper poison (
Tropical and temperate Asia. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar, but more commonly in Upper Myanmar and temperate regions.
Sweet, sour, and astringent in taste, with cooling properties to control agitation, promote circulation, and calm “heat”.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The fruit is considered the richest natural source known of vitamin C (“The juice contains nearly 20 times as much vitamin C as orange juice.”); the “tannin (containing gallic acid, ellagic acid, and glucose) naturally present in the fruit retards the oxidation of the vitamin, so the fruit “is a valuable antiscorbutic either fresh or dry” (
West Indies. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
The plant is used as a diuretic and for menorrhagia.
In India, the whole plant is used as a diuretic, for urinogenital tract diseases, gonorrhea, and dropsy; the milky juice is applied to putrescent sores; the leaf is used as a stomachic; the fresh root is used for jaundice; powdered roots and leaves are made into a poultice with rice-water and used to reduce ulcers and edematous swellings; and infusion of young stems used for dysentery (
Reported chemical constituents include potassium and phyllanthin (a substance said to poison fish) (
Old World tropics.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Asia. Grows naturally in Myanmar; thrives in wet and humid areas.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Himalayas (Nepal to Bhutan), India, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia. Grows naturally throughout Myanmar, but especially in the mountainous northern part of the country in the shade of large trees; also cultivated.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Asia. Cultivated along Myanmar’s coastal areas and Kayin State; thrives in temperatures between 10 and 37.8 degrees Celsius, with at least 1.5 m of rainfall annually.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Danube region and Greece; naturalized in northeastern North America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the leaf is used as a cardiac stimulant and tonic (
Reported chemical constituents include the cardiac glycosides, dioxin, gitoxin, and dilanane (
A polymorphic species centered in the Mediterranean region. Naturalized elsewhere, including northern Africa; northern, middle, and southeastern Europe; also cultivated. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Dried leaves are a principle source of the drug digitalis. In India the leaf of this species is used for heart and kidney disease; also applied locally on wounds and burns (
Research has shown that chemicals found in this plant are effective as a bacteriocide and cardiotonic (
Europe and Asia; considered a cosmopolitan weed. In Myanmar, grows naturally in cold places at high altitudes, such as Pyin-oo-lwin and surrounding areas.
Least Concern [
Leaves, roots, stems, flowers, and fruits are used.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Pantropical to subtropical. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The following are given in the literature as medicinal uses for this species: Treatment of rashes, sores, wounds, bruises, eczema; earache, headache, toothache, sore throat, cough, bronchitis, fever; spasm; for tumor, albuminuria, amygdalosis, anemia, blennorrhagia, conjunctivitis, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, gonorrhea, gravel, grip, hyperglycemia, inflammation, jaundice, ketonuria, kidney problems, mange, marasmus, menorrhagia, metroxenia, nerves, ophthalmia, piles, retinitis, snakebite; for use as an antidote, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, emetic, purgative; also used as an insecticide (
Research has shown chemicals found in this plant to be effective in the treatment of albuminuria, anemia, diabetes, hyperglycemia, and retinitis (
Southeast Asia. Found growing all over Myanmar except in the hot and very cold regions; grows naturally but can be also found cultivated in hedges for use as a medicinal plant.
The five parts (root, stem, leaf, flower, and fruit) are used. The plant has a sharp hot taste and is considered good for digestion and strength. The entire plant is known for slowing aging and supporting longevity. The crushed whole plant is used topically for eye ailments, scabies, and leucoderma.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Southeast Asia. Found growing naturally throughout Myanmar; also cultivated. there.
The entire plant, root, and sticky sap are used.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Mediterranean region; also in tropical America. In Myanmar, found growing naturally all over up to 1 km altitude, most common in Bhamaw, Katha, Pyin-oo-lwin and Thayet areas.
Least Concern [
With cooling properties, as well as bitter, sweet and astringent tastes, this plant facilitates digestion, clears phlegm, repels bile, purifies blood, and diminishes “heat”. It relieves aches and pains in the heart, bladder and uterus, in addition to curing herpes, stimulating appetite, increasing sperm, purifying urine and strengthening breathing.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
A reported chemical constituent of the species is the alkaloid gramine (donaxine). Research has indicated that this alkaloid causes weak parasympathomimetic action (
India to China, south through Thailand and Indo-China; cultivated elsewhere. Reported from Myanmar.
In China the species is used as a treatment for jaundice, indigestion, and water retention; also, “The sap of the stem or a decoction of the unfolding leaves is administered as a treatment for fevers and rheumatic affections” (
Southeast Asia. In Myanmar found in Kachin and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The seeds contain coicin, glutamic acid, histidin, arginin, leucin, lycin, and tyrosin; the acetone extract of the seeds is said to show a growth-inhibiting activity, or an antitumor component, coixenolide (
Southern India and Sri Lanka. Cultivated in Myanmar; grows all over, up to 610 m altitude.
Bitter and astringent in taste, plant is used for heart and throat problems, flatulence and phlegm conditions, sicknesses that cause blood vomiting, cholera, coughs and fevers with chest congestion. It promotes healthy gall bladder function, circulation and digestion.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Africa; Asia.
In India the leaf is used for cough, rheumatism, and cholera; also as a tonic for dyspepsia and to purify blood (
The oil from the roots contains DL-piperitone and D-∆4-carene (
Native to southern India and Sri Lanka. Introduced elsewhere as a crop plant; commonly cultivated. Cultivated throughout Myanmar, up to 610 m altitude.
Bitter and sweet in taste, the plant can cause loose bowels, and feelings of hunger. It can be used to control flatulence and to treat leprosy, epilepsy, and diseases associated with the intestines.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Southeastern Europe; northern Africa; Macaronesia; Atlantic, Pacific and western Indian Ocean islands; temperate Asia; Arabia; China; India; Indo-China; Malesia; Australia; North America; Mexico; South and Meso-America; Caribbean. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
Widely distributed in the warm and temperate zones; common in marshes and wet places. Reported from Myanmar.
Least Concern [
The many medicinal many uses of the species in China are discussed in
Reported constituents include asparagine, proteins, and glycosides (
New World, probably Mexico. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the grain is used in the diet of consumptive patients, for treating relaxed bowels, as an astringent, and as a resolvent (
In Haiti an infusion of the styles is used as a diuretic and for kidney problems; a decoction or maceration of the styles is used for inflammations and edema; the ground grains are used in a warm compress on traumatized areas and swellings; a cataplasm of the ground grains is applied to fractures; and, split ears of corn are made into an infusion as an antihypertensive (
Central or northern Asia. Widely grown as cultigen in cool temperate regions, and easily escaping.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
North temperate. Found in China, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sikkim, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand; and Australia. In Myanmar found in Mandalay and Yangon.
On the Malay Peninsula the leaves are used as tonic (
Throughout China, Bhuton, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; Russia (Siberia); Africa; and Australia. In Myanmar, the species in found in Taninthayi and Yangon.
Least Concern [
In India the bark is eaten with sugar to relieve asthma; the root is chewed to relieve toothache (
Thought probably originally native to southwestern United States, and now widely distributed in warm temperate, tropical, and subtrobical regions throughout world. Cosmopolitan weed; also cultivated, and with many medicinal uses. Much variation in the species.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and traditional medicinal uses of this plant on a worldwide basis are discussed in detail by
China, Philippines, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Rakhine, and Taninthayi.
This species is reported as used in the treatment of diarrhea, fever, and rheumatism (
India. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay, Mon, and Yangon.
In India the leaf and fruit (including the stones) are used as a decoction for fevers and colds (
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, West Nepal, New Guinea, Philippines, Sikkim, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, and Taninthayi.
In China the plant is used to relieve itch and a decoction of the root is used to treat lumbago (
Temperate Asia. Grows naturally in northeastern Myanmar at altitudes exceeding 2440 m.
Endangered [
The plant’s bitter taste creates a heating sensation in the stomach.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Eastern Mediterranean to northeastern India; also cultivated. In Myanmar found in Kachin and Sagaing.
On the Malay Peninsula the seeds are a component of poultices for abscesses, rheumatism, orchitis, ulcerated nose, headache; part of a lotion to wash fever patients and a gargle; and taken internally in combination with other drugs as an antiemetic and laxative (
China, Bhutan, India, Laos, Malaysia, Mayanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
In Indonesia bark with water serves as a wash for the hair and kills vermin in it; pulped root, stem and leaves are applied to treat certain skin complaints (
The bark and leaves of this species contain a small amount of alkaloid which has been found to have a tetanizing effect on toads (
China, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Seeds of this species were analyzed and found to contain protein, reducing sugars (as glucose), 40% fixed oil (oleic acid a major constituent; others included palmitic, linolenic, linoleic, lauric, stearic, and small amounts of caprylic acids), sterols, glycosides, and free acids. The unsaponfiable matter contained B-amyrin and lupeol as well as traces of two unidentified hydrocarbons (
Native to temperate East Asia, also warmer climates including Indo-China (Cambodia). Cultivated in Myanmar.
Least Concern [
The seeds of this species contain no alkaloid; the oil contains oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, and phytosterol (
Pakistan, China, Myanmar, India, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widespread in Myanmar.
In India the bark is used for diarrhea, bleeding gums, sores in the mouth and on the tongue, venereal sores, and carbuncles; the flower is employed for menorrhagia (
China, South Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam; northern Australia, Madagascar, East Nepal, New Guinea, and Pacific islands. In Myanmar, found growing naturally all over the country, especially near rivers and streams.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Along coasts of the Old World tropics. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady and Taninthayi.
Least Concern [
In China and Japan a decoction of the bark is antidiarrheic; in Indo-China the root is antihemorrhagic, as is the bark (the latter is also a treatment for angina); on the Malay Peninsula a decoction of old leaves is given at childbirth, also of bark, at the same time giving a little of the decoction of the root to the child (
Mostly North Temperate Zone. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay.
Plant (part unspecified in
In India the leaf is used as an anthelmintic; the root as a diuretic, tonic, and astringent (
Himalayas, China. Reported from Myanmar.
Least Concern [
In India the bark is used for venereal diseases, fever, and diarrhea; the seed yields an oil used for stones and gravel (
Found from India to South China, south into southeastern Asia.
In China the root and fruit are considered emetic; on the Malay Peninsula the pericarps are used in a wash, the leaves pounded with sugar or molasses are used as an effective application for swellings, the inside of the fruit is rubbed on exposed parts of the body to ward off leeches, and the drug is put into a hot bath to treat mosquito and other bites; and in Indo-China a tea-like infusion of the bark is used to regulate menses, and water in which fruits are crushed is used to get eliminate leeches or worms if spread on the soil (
Experiments have shown that the alcoholic extract contains unidentified water-soluble fatty acids, essential oil, green coloring matter, an acid saponin, and an acid resin; also, that the pharmacologically active constituent is a neutral saponin (
Northeast Tropical Africa- Ethiopia, Sudan; East Tropical Africa- Kenya. Widely cultivated in tropics, and sometimes naturalized.
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In Indo-China a decoction of the root is astringent, and is used to treat diarrhea and dysentery (
India, Myanmar, Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Philippines, Sulawesi, and the Moluccas. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Yangon.
In Indo-China the bark is used as tonic; also, the species apparently has two varieties- var.
Reported constituents include a catechol tannin containing phloraglucin, some phlobaphenes, traces of catechol tannin without phloroglucin (analogous to quinatannic acid) not combined with alkaloid, oxycoumarin, B-mannose, methyl sugar, and heteroside of which some elements could not be isolated (
Malay Peninsula and China. In Myanmar found in Yangon.
In China the plant is used as an anodyne and resolvent; for abscesses, bruises, extravasated blood, rheumatism, wounds; also considered beneficial to bone marrow and the uterus of pregnant women (
South India. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the root is used as a stomachic, for acute dysentery, loss of appetite, chronic ulcers, and applied on sores; the flower is used for dysentery, catarrhal bronchitis, and leucorrhea (
Native to Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin and Taninthayi.
In Thailand chewed leaves are reputed to act as a stimulant to help person endure fatigue and long-lasting periods without food. It is also used as an opium substitute, “but is habit-forming” (
Reported chemical constituents include mitragynine and mitraphylline; the former is said to be a local anesthetic (
China, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. In Myanmar, found growing naturally all over the country but especially in Upper and Lower Myanmar.
East Indies and Australia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
From India and Sri Lana to Malay Archipelago. In Myanmar, grows naturally in the hot zone and at the base of the Bago Yoma Hills.
China, Taiwan, Nepal, Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
Four new triterpenoid glycosides were isolated from the root bark of this species. Some of the compounds showed inhibitory activity against a periodonotpathic bacterium,
Australasia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Mandalay, and Yangon.
Reported medicinal uses of this species include as a piscicide, tonic, and vulnerary; also for headache, fever, and tumor (
India to Indo-China south to New Guinea. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, and Yangon.
In Indo-China the bark is tonic and bechic; on the Malay Peninsula a leaf-poultice or an oiled, heated leaf is applied to the chest or abdomen to treat fever or malaria (
Pantropical.
Himalayas, Central and East India; Indo-China, Malayaia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.
In China the leaves are eaten to aid digestion and the sap, or the entire plant, is used as a remedy for poisonous insect bite;. the root (boiled with pigs’ feet) is used to aid circulation and soothe articular and muscular pains in elderly people and also used as a medicine to expel gas and treat ague; utilized in epidemics and said to have great restorative power (
India, southern China, Malay Archipelago, northern Australia. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay and Yangon.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Reported constituents of the stem include an alkaloid, essential oil, resin, tannin, pectic principle; those of the roots are resin, starch, organic acid, and a bitter glycoside resembling salicin (
Southern Europe to Africa and Asia. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Magway, Mandalay, and Shan.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are listed in
China, Hong Kong, Taiwan; Japan- Ryukyu Islands; India; Indochina, Myanmar, Thailand; Malesia. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Magway, and Yangon.
Reported medicinal uses for this species include for earache, eye problems, blindness, ophthalmia, fever, inflammation, dysentery, splenitis, otisis, pimpes, sores, stings, and gingivitis (
Himalayas (Garhwal to Sikkim), India, Myanmar, and Indo-China. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Bago, and Yangon.
The following medicinal uses have been given for this species: Astringent, deobstruent, diuretic, piscicide, tonic, and refrigerant; also used for eye problems, boils, otitis, inflammation, biliousness, colic, intestine, diarrhea, and dysentery (
India, Myanmar. Occasionally cultivated in tropics. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Magway, Sagaing, Shan, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
India and Southeast Asia. Found throughout Myanmar as a cultivar.
The oil in the peel of limes, i.e., oil of bergamot, contains psoralen, a chemical which can cause phototoxic reactions such as blistering and burning of human skin when exposed to sunlight after eating limes, affecting areas around a person’s chin, cheeks, and chest. Oil of bergamot is used in Egypt as a folk remedy for vitiligo, a skin disease causing loss of skin pigment, and it is currently being investigated for its ability to remedy severe psoriasis (
South Vietnam. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
In the classification of this species espoused by
Southeast Asia. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Indigenous medicinal uses of this species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India) are described by
The lemon is possibly a hybrid (backcross) between lime and citron (
Asia, Australia, and tropical South Africa. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in China are discussed in
Widely distributed on all continents. In Myanmar, grows naturally in hot zone, in townships such as Pakokku, Myin-kyan, Pyay, Shwe-bo, Sagaing, Myaing, Nwa-hto-gyi, and Taungthar. Can also be found in some of the semi-desert dry and scrubby areas of Upper Myanmar.
In Indo-China the ripe fruit is cooling, astringent, tonic, “very efficacious” to treat salivation and ulcers in the mouth; a decoction of the aromatic leaves is taken as stomachic and carminative; the bark, chewed with that of
Marmosin has been isolated from the bark, feronialactones from the bark and roots, bergapten from the leaves, and stigmasterol from the leaves and unripe fruits (
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, kachin, Magway, Sagaing, Shan, and Yangon.
In China the fruit is used for dysentery and stomachache; the seed as a sudorific, febrifuge, and for tooth powder. Medicinal uses if this species in China are discussed in (
Old World tropics. Sub-himalayan foot hill zone in India extending to southeastern Asia, China. “… not known in the wild state, but is cultivated around villages in tropical countries of SE Asia (occasional in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Luzon)” (
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietmam. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Kachin, Mandalay, and Sagaing.
Plant used as a febrifuge (no specific part given in
On the Malay Peninsula a cold decoction of the leaves is used as a lotion for an ulcerated nose (
Tropical Asia and Australasia. Grows throughout Myanmar where annual precipitation is 63.5–89 cm and temperatures range between 10–32 degrees Celsius, at altitudes of 610–915 m. Brought to Myanmar from India; cultivated in Yangon, around the Kaba Aye pagoda, in Pyin Oo Lwin and around the base of Mount Popa.
Vulnerable [VU A1d] (
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
In Europe, northern Asia, and northern Africa. In Myanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Magway, and Shan.
In India the whole plant is used for “puss formation”; from the leaf a poultice is made for neuralgia, and ash is placed on itching skin (
Pantropical.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
East Asia; cultivated elsewhere. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Mon, and Shan.
Lower Risk/near threatened [
In China the fleshy part of the fruit is used as a nutrient-roborant, benefiting the spleen, heart, kidneys, lungs, and mental faculties, and is also employed as an antidote and anthelmintic; the powdered kernel is used as a styptic (
Arizona to South America, West Indies, and widely distributed in the Old World Tropics. In Mayanmar, found in Ayeyarwady, Rakhine Taninthayi, and Yangon.
In Taiwan and Palau the leave are used as a remedy for fever; in the Philippines a decoction of the bark serves as an astringent applied to treat eczema and simple ulcers, also used as a febrifuge (
The leaves have been found to contain an alkaloid, glucoside, tannin, and resins (
South China, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Philippines. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical America, North India. In Myanmar, found in Magway.
In areas of the world where the plant is present, the fruit is used as soap (
A 22% physiologically active saponin has been extracted from the plant. The fruit is the soap nut, containing a toxic saponin (
Widespread from tropical and subtropical Asia to Australia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In Indo-China, used in a maceration or infusion, the bark is said to be anti-malarial; also used as a dressing for adenitis and immature boils, and made into a paste with rice water and powdered gypsum for spreading on lesions (
The seeds are more than half oil, in which a small part of prussic acid is found (
Central America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Juice of the leaves and young fruits of
Tropical. India, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. Grows naturally around Myanmar; also cultivated.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
West Pakistan and central India to southern China, Taiwan, south to the Malay Archipelago and the Mariana Islands.
This species is used as an abortifacient and intoxicant; for dermatosis, inflammation, malaria; and to treat tumors (
Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China, south into Indonesia. In Myanmar found in Kayin and Taninthayi.
Medicinal uses of this species in Indo-China, where the native name of the tree is “tree of 100 maladies”; Vietnam, where it is “much used in the Vietnamese pharmacopeia”; Cambodia; and the Malay Peninsula are discussed in
Distributed in tropical southeastern Asia as far as the Solomon Islands. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
The species is reported to be used as an antidote and larvicide; also for dyspepsia and fever (
From Myanmar and Indo-China to the Solomon Islands, but not in Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands; also cultivated. In Myanmar, found in Taninthayi.
In Indonesia the bark, wood, and seeds serve as a febrifuge and tonic, and a decoction is prescribed for bilious fever; the seed, chewed or ground with water, is both emetic and purgative, and oil from the seeds is a constituent in an embrocation for rheumatism; leaves are crushed and applied to erysipelas, also an infusion of the leaves is used to kill insects, especially white ants (
The bitter principle is samaderin (
Southern Europe to Asia in the Himalayas. In Myanmar, found in Chin, Kachin, and Shan.
In India the root is used on skin eruptions; also as a substitute for Indian sarsaparilla (
Eastern Asia - China to the Himalayas. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, and Taninthayi.
In India fresh roots are decocted for sores and venereal diseases (
The plant is said to contain the antitumor hormones, beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol, and the tubers are nearly 70% starch; also, alcohol extracts contain a glucoside (
Throughout India, Myanmar, Malaya, and Sri Lanka.
In India and Nepal, the root is used as a substitute for sarsaparilla in the treatment of syphilis and gonorrhea. Also, a decoction of the root is given for swellings, abscesses, and boils (
Andes (3050 – 3655 m), central Ecuador to northern Chile. In its natural range will not grow at low elevations. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Extinct in the Wild [EW] (
South America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Extinct in the Wild [EW] (
In Dominica, it has been observed that the dried flowers, smoked in cigarettes, are hallucinogenic (
Leaves and fruits of
New World tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition, and toxicity of this species are discussed by
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity, and dosages, are discussed by
The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species (as
As noted by
Native to the West Indies (Howard 1989), or to tropical Asia (
The medicinal uses of this species in East and Southeast Asian countries are listed in
The active principle is an alkaloid, hyoscine, found in both seeds and leaves; in too large quantities, it can cause delirium,
Native of Mexico; now pantropical. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity, and dosages, are discussed by
Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical constituents, and toxicity of this species are discussed by
Native to Peru; naturalized elsewhere. Escaped in United States and American tropics, often weedy. In Myanmar, found in Mandalay and Shan.
In India the whole plant is used as a diuretic (
Northern and western tropical South America. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the leaf of this plant is used for abdominal troubles (
Pantropical, subtropical.
Preparations made from parts of this plant are used to dissolve phlegm, stimulate the appetite, and strengthen the heart, as well as to treat leprous sores, fever, asthma, gas, and rashes.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Africa and Asia. Widely cultivated in many countries.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
New World tropics.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and use of this species as a hunting poison and medicinal plant in Africa are discussed by
China, India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
In India the bark is used for bronchitis, digestive and urinary disorders, menorrhagia, eye diseases, ulcers, bleeding gums, maturation of wounds, liver problems, elephantiasis, and fat in the urine (
The bark contains starch, calcium oxalate, alumina, alkaloid, tannin; but no saponin, oil, or fat (
India, east to Indonesia and Taiwan. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Chin, Kachin, Kayin, Mandalay, Rakhine, Sagaing, Shan, and Taninthayi.
In India the bark is an anthelmintic and rubefacient, irritating to the skin (
Southeast Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. In Myanmar, grows naturally along the Tanintharyi Yomas, and on islands in Beik district; found in Chin, Kachin, Mandalay, Mon, and Sagaing.
Vulnerable [VU A1cd] (
Preparations made from parts of this tree are used to control coughs and leprosy, stimulate weight gain, alleviate indigestion, treat eye and ear ailments, promote urinary flow, resolve liver and intestinal problems, and eliminate bad breath.
Inner wood is made into a paste which is inhaled, or burned to produce fumes for inhaling as a remedy for excessive dizziness; applied topically or ingested to cure vomiting, stop bleeding, and alleviate swollen joints; and applied at frequent intervals as a remedy for skin disorders and conditions arising from lack of hygiene. The paste, mixed with the root bark from
In India the wood is an aphrodisiac, carminative, stimulant, and tonic; also used for snakebite, and as an astringent for treating vomiting and diarrhea (
In East and Southeast Asia medicinal uses of this species are given as follows: In Mongolia “Bezoar” from the bark is employed to “remove the poison” of feverish illnesses; in China it is used as an aphrodisiac, a diuretic, and for the purposes mentioned in the previous paragraph; in Indo-China the heartwood is thought to be antifebrile and antimalarial, also a decoction of it is given for paralysis, and alcohol from macerating it is used as a remedy for vomiting, cholera, cough, anuria, and indigestion; on the Malay Peninsula an infusion from the grated root is given to treat general dropsy or anasarca, finely ground leaves are rubbed over swollen hands and legs of a someone with dropsy, and resin from the wood is an ingredient in sedatives; and in Indonesia the leaves, mixed with vinegar, salt, and charcoal, are used to treat vomiting (
From the grated wood of
Asia. In Myanmar, found in Mon and Taninthayi.
Plant said to be used medicinally, but specific use not given.
Another member of this genus,
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka; Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
The bark and leaves are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, anti-inflammatory, digestive, carminative, laxative, anthelmintic, depurative, and revulsive; considered useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, inflammations, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, vomiting, skin diseases, leprosy, diabetes, hemorrhoids, and rheumatism (
An aqueous extract of leaves of this species has shown antimicrobial activity (
Tropical Asia, where cultivated for fiber. Cultivated in Myanmar.
In India the leaf is used as a resolvent and the root as an aperient (
China, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Sikkim, Sri Lanka; Africa, including Madagascar. Reported from Myanmar.
In India the leaf of this species is used for swollen joints and headache; also as a decoction for fever (
China, Afghanistan, Central Himalayas; northern Africa, Europe, and North America. Widespread in temperate regions of both hemispheres.
Least Concern [
In India the whole plant is used as an anthelmintic, a local irritant in paralysis, for nephritis, menorrhagia, jaundice, and a decoction is astringent: the leaf is used for wounds and boils, also locally for sprains and rheumatism; the leaf and root are used in an infusion for dandruff; the seed and root are used for diarrhea; and an unspecified plant part is used as a hemostatic for uterine hemorrhage and bleeding from the nose (
Eastern Asia - Himalayas (Bhutan, North India, Kashmir, Nepal, Sikkim).
In India the whole plant is used in a decoction for fevers (
Native to Tropical America; introduced in the East, and now pantropic. Reported from Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The medicinal uses of this plant in the Caribbean region, as well as its chemistry, biological activity, toxicity and dosages, are discussed by
Worldwide medicinal usage, chemical composition and toxicity of this species are noted by
New World tropics. Widely dispersed in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
The chemistry, pharmacology, history, and medicinal uses of this species in Latin America are discussed in detail by
Widespread in temperate and subtropical regions. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The plant is bitter, cooling, useful for congestion, and as an antidote for insect bites.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Asia and Africa. Widely distributed in Myanmar; also cultivated.
This species is cultivated in Myanmar especially for its astringent property (
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam. Reported from Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Yangon.
The lesser galangal (
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical Asia. In Myanmar, found in Bago and Mandalay.
The rhizomes are used externally in indigenous medicine in Thailand, and as an anti-inflammatory agent. Also, in combination with
Five diphenylheptenoids have been extracted and tested for their inhibition of nematode activity. On the nematode
India. Widely cultivated in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
From the Himalayas to Chittagong south into Indonesia, especially northeastern India; cultivated elsewhere. Cultivated in Myanmar.
“The rhizome is official in many pharmacopeias. Everywhere it is regarded as a stomachic and carminative.” In China it is used as a tonic nutrient and a resolvent of swellings and contusions; it is also used to dissolve blood clots, promote circulation, and to reduce abdominal pain. In Taiwan it is used to treat heart complaints, cholera, gonorrhea, irregular menstruation, and snakebites. In Indo-China it is used as a tonic. In the Philippines, ash from the rhizome is applied to wounds and ulcers (
The medicinal use of this species in India is discussed in
Reported constituents are volatile oil, cineole, camphene, zingiberene, borneol, camphor, curcumin, zedoarin, gum, resin, and starch (
Native to southern India; cultivated widely in the tropics. Cultivated in Myanmar.
China (Sichuan), India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand. In Myanmar, found in Bago, Mandalay, Mon, Taninthayi, and Yangon.
Many
Tropical Asia. Widely distributed in Myanmar.
Hot in taste, the species is used to regulate the blood, stimulate urination, and release gas.
The medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
Tropical southeastern Asia. Also, cultivated in the tropics and in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
India. Cultivated in Myanmar.
Medicinal uses of this species in India are discussed in
We wish to express our deep appreciation to Shirley L. Maina and Beverly Wolpert for their assistance in organizing and preparing various treatments. We are indebted to Thi Thi Ta for her translation skills. Smithsonian interns Allen Dawson and Hannah Ahn gave their valuable time during the course of this project. We thank W. John Kress for his encouragement to prepare this manuscript. We thank two anonymous reviewers and the editor for their insightful and constructive comments on this manuscript.
achiote
adalut
Adam’s apple
adlay
adlay millet
adulsa
aeginetia
aerial yam
aerva
African marigold
agarwood
agrimony
air plant
air potato
alder
Alexandrian laurel
Alexandrian senna
aloe
aloewood
American arrowroot
American upland cotton
amoora
angel’s trumpet
annatto
Annie’s lace
apple of Peru
apricot blush foxglove
Arabian coffee
Arabian senna
Arabica coffee
aramina
arrowroot
asana
ash pumpkin
Asian markhamia
asoka tree
asparagus
Assyrian plum
Australian asthma weed
Australian fever tree
Australian pine
Australian red cedar
avaram
Aztec marigold
bael tree
ball tree
balloon vine
balsam-apple
balsam-pear
Barbados flower
Barbados nut
barleria
bastard indigo
bastard jute
bastard sandalwood
bastard-teak
beach morning glory
bead tree
beautyberry
beddome
beefwood
begar’s-tick
bela tree
bell bush
bell pepper
belleric
bellyache bush
Ben nut
Bengal arum
Bengal quince
Benjamin tree
betel
betel pepper
betel vine
bicolor Persian violet
bimli jute
bimlipatum jute
bird’s nest
bishop’s weed
bishop’s wood
bitter aloe
bitter cucumber
bitter gourd
bitter melon
bitter orange
bitter stick
bitterwood
bittu bark
black chuglam
black creeper
black cumin
black cutch
black oil plant
black pepper
black plum
blackberry tree
black-eyed Susan vine
bleeding-heart vine
blimbing
blood flower
blue aloe
blue fountain bush
blue gum
blue pea
bluebird vine
bo tree
boat lily
bombax
Bombay hemp
Bonavista bean
boundary mark
brake
braken
brank
Brazilian tea
bread flower
bridal couch tree
broad-leaved plantain
buckwheat
bur mallow
Burma linseed
Burmese ironwood
Burmese storax
burrbush
burrflower tree
bush clock-vine
buttefly-weed
butterfly pea
butterfly tree
butterfly weed
butterweed
cabbage
cadamba
Caesar weed
cajeput
calamus
California cypress
camel’s foot tree
camphor
camphor tree
cananga
candle bush
canna
cannonball mangrove
Canton ginger
cape gooseberry
caper bush
capoc
carallia
caramba
carrizo
cart-track-plant
cashew nut
cassie
castor bean
castor oil plant
cat’s whiskers
catbrier
cayenne pepper
ceiba
celery
Ceylon caper
Ceylon cinnamon
Ceylon citronella
Ceylon hydrolea
Ceylon ironwood
Ceylon leadwort
Ceylon oak
Ceylon rosewood
chaulmoogra
cheerojee-oil plant
cherry tomato
chewing gum tree
chicken eyes
chicle tree
chili pepper
China grass
Chinese banyan
Chinese bitter-cucumber
Chinese box tree
Chinese date
Chinese elder
Chinese guger tree
Chinese honeysuckle
Chinese ixora
Chinese jujube
Chinese knotweed
Chinese mustard
Chinese parsley
Chinese silk plant
Chinese smartweed
Chinese waterspinach
Chinese-cucumber
chirauli nut
Chittagong wood
chloranthus
cinnamon
citrine myrobalan
citronella
citronella grass
clammy cherry
claoxylon
clausena
clearing nut tree
climbing lily
climbing ylang-ylang
clove
clove tree
clustered fishtail palm
cobra plant
cobra’s saffron
cock’s comb
cocklebur
coffee
common allamanda
common buckwheat
common cowitch
common emetic nut
common foxglove
common ginger
common ironwood
common jujube
common plantain
common purslane
common reed
common sage
common
congo-jute
copperleaf
coral bush
coral jasmine
coral pea
coral wood
cordate monochoria
coriander
corn mint
corn
cotton tree
country fig
country gooseberry
cow soapwort
cowcockle
cowhage
cowherb
cowitch
crab eyes
crape gardenia
crape jasmine
creat
creeper
crepe ginger
crested cock’s comb
creyat root
croton
crown flower
cubeb pepper
cucha cara
cucumber
cultivated celery
curltop ladysthumb
curlytop knotweed
curlytop smartweed
custard apple
cutch
cycad
cynometra
dancing daisy
dasheen
dayflower
Deckaner hemp
deer’s foot
devil tree
devil’s claw
devil’s cotton
devil’s horsewhip
devil’s plague
devil’s trumpet
diffuse hogweed
digitalis
dill
dita bark
divine herb
dock-leaf smartweed
dodder
dog bush
dog fruit
dogtail
donka
downy jasmine
dragon’s blood
drooping fig
drumstick tree
duckweed
Dutchman’s pipe
dwarf copperleaf
dwarf poinciana
dwarf white bauhinia
dysentery bush
eaglewood
earth nut
East Indian rosebay
East Indian screw tree
eclipta
eddo
eggplant
Egyptian bean
Egyptian grass
Egyptian rattlepod
elderberry
elephant apple
elephant yam
elephantopus
emblic
emetic nut
empress candle plant
emu-berry
estragon
European dill
exile oleander
falsa
false ashoka
false daisy
false dogwood
false pareira brava
false saffron
false tarragon
fennel
fern asparagus
fetid passionflower
fever grass
field bindweed
field mint
fire plant
firedragon
fire-flame bush
fish poison climber
fishtail palm
five-leaved chaste tree
five-leaved yam
flagroot
flamboyant
flame lily
flame-of-the-forest
flame-of-the-woods
flat-top mille grains
flax
fleshy spurge
floppers
four o’clock
fragrant padri-tree
frangipani
French tarragon
freshwater mangrove
fringed hibiscus
fritillaria
gale of the wind
gallow grass
garcinia
garden onion
garden purslane
garden quinine
garden sage
gargu
garlic
garuga
giant dodder
giant granadilla
giant reed
giant swallowart
giant thorny bamboo
glabrous greenbrier
glory bower
glory tree
gmelina
goat’s foot creeper
goatweed
gold mohur
golden apple
golden cassia
golden champak
golden mahogany
golden shower tree
golden trumpet
goldenberry
goldthread
gooseberry tree
goosefoot
grass nut
grass
gray mangrove
great bougainvillea
great plantain
greater galangal
Grecian foxglove
green champa
green ripple peacock ginger
green sagewart
greenbrier
ground cherry
groundnut
guava
guaymochil
guest tree
gum-arabic
gumhar
gum-lac
gumma
hairy fig
hairy indigo
harvest-lice
heart’s pea
heart-leaved moonseed
heart-seed
hedge euphorbia
heynea
hibiscus burr
hill glory bower
Himalayan nettle
Himalayan wild cherry
Hindu datura
hiptage
hoary basil
hog plum
hog-pasture brake
holly-leaved acanthus
holy basil
hopseed bush
hopseed
horn of plenty
horse bean
horseradish tree
hot pepper
hsee mee-tauk
hyacinth bean
hygrophila
iceplant
Indian acalypha
Indian almond
Indian bael
Indian bean
Indian birthwort
Indian cherry
Indian coral tree
Indian cork tree
Indian dill
Indian elm
Indian fir tree
Indian gentian
Indian goldthread
Indian gum tree
Indian heliotrope
Indian hemp
Indian jalap
Indian kamala
Indian kapok
Indian laburnum
Indian laurel
Indian lilac
Indian long pepper
Indian madder
Indian mast tree
Indian mulberry
Indian nightshade
Indian oak
Indian pennywort
Indian persimmon
Indian privit
Indian red water-lily
Indian rhododendron
Indian rose-chestnut
Indian sandalwood
Indian senna
Indian shot
Indian snakeroot
Indian sorrel
Indian spinach
Indian spiral ginger
Indian spurgetree
Indian squirrel tail
Indian trumpet flower
Indian weed
Indian wild pepper
Indian-gooseberry
ironwood tree
irul
ivy gourd
iwarancusa grass
jaboncillo
jack bean
jack in the bush
jackfruit
Jacob’s coat
jail
Jamaica sorrel
jambolan plum
jambu
Jamestown weed
japanese mint
Japanese pepper
jasmine tree
Java flower
Java pepper
Java plum
Java tea
Javanese elderberry
jequirity
jhingam poma
jhingam
jimson weed
Job’s tears
joyweed
jungle flame ixora
jungle geranium
kadam tree
kalisar
kalo
kamala tree
kannyut
kapok bush
kapok
kassod tree
kathu
key lime
kidney cotton
kidney tea plant
king of bitters
kitchen sage
kohlrabi
kratom
kydia
lac tree
lady’s finger
lambsquarters
lamtoro
landrina
lantana
laran
laurel
laurel clock vine
laurel-leaved clockvine
laurel-leaved thunbergia
laurel-wood
leaf of life
leea
leechee
Leichhardt-pine
lemon
lemon grass
lesser cardamon
lesser galangal
leucaena
liane savon
licorice weed
life plant
lilac tasselflower
lime
linseed
linwheel flower
lipstick-tree
litchi
litchi nut
little hogweed
little ironweed
lolly fruit
long zedoary
loosestrife
lovage
love-in-a-mist
low shoebutton
lubia bean
lucky nut
luffa
lychee
mace
mad apple
Madagascar periwinkle
madras wormwood
mahonia
maikoa
maize
Malabar almond
Malabar nut tree
Malay banyan
Malay bush-beech
Malay laurel
mango
mangosteen
mangrove
manila tamarind
maranta
marigold
marihuana
markingnut tree
marsh herb
marsh parsley
marvel of Peru
mataran tea
melastoma
metal seed
Mexican lime
Mexican petunia
Mexican prickly poppy
Mexican tea
michelia
microcos
milk weed
milkhedge
millet
millettia
mimosa
mistletoe
moi
monia
monkey nut
monkey-jack
moon flower
moonbeam
moonflower
morinda
morning glory
Moses in a cradle
moulmein cedar
mountain ebony
Mousa nettle
munjeet
musk mallow
mussaenda
mussoorie berry
myrobalan
nagi camphor
nana cane
natal plum
needle wood
neepa bark
ngapi nut
nicandra
night jasmine
nodding smartweed
notch-seeded buckwheat
nutgall tree
nutmeg
nutmeg flower
nwar myay yinn
oilgrass
olax
oleander
oleander-leaved euphorbia
onion
opposite-leaf drysophylia
ortie
Otaheite gooseberry
oval-leaf monochoria
oval-leaf pondweed
oyster plant
Pacific maple
padri
pagoda tree
pale smartweed
panicled peristrophe
papaw
papaya
pasture brake
patana oak
patchouli
pawpaw
peanut
periwinkle
Peruvian winter cherry
Peruvian yellow oleander
petari
phalsa
physic nut
physic nut
physic nut
pickerel weed
pigweed
plantain
poison bulb
poma
pomegranate
porcupine flower
pot
potato yam
pothos
prairie turnip
prickly chaff
prickly fanpetals
prickly poppy
pride of Barbados
pride of Burma
prince’s feather
pudding pipe tree
puneala plum
purging cassia
purging nut
purple allamanda
purple amaranthus
purple foxglove
purple-flowered resurection lily
purslane
pursley
puzzlenut tree
pyrethrum
quassia wood
Queen Anne’s lace
queen of flowering trees
queen’s crape myrtle
Queensland asthma herb
Queesland arrowroot
rabbit greens
ramie
Rangoon creeper
red amaranthus
red bean vine
red cedar
red cottontree
red milkweed
red morning-glory
red pepper
red plumeria
red sandalwood
red santol
red sarsaparilla
red silk-cotton
red tasselflower
red-fruit passionflower
red-root
resurection lily
ribwort
rimil-beer
ringworm cassia
ringworm shrub
rohituka
Roman coriander
rosary pea
rose apple
rose of China
rose of Sharon
rosebay
rosy leadwort
round zedoary
royal poinciana
rozelle
rubber tree
Rumphf’s fig tree
running-pop
sacred basil
sacred fig tree
sacred garlic pear
safflower
sage
sandalwood
santol
sapistan
sapodilla
sariva
sarsaparilla
savannah fern
scarlet ixora
scarlet leadwort
scarlet wisteria tree
schima
scuffy pea
sea holly
sea island cotton
Sebastian tree
Sebesten plum
selu
sensitive plant
sentol
sentul
serpent wood
sesame
sessile joyweed
Seville orange
shaggy button weed
shame weed
shan camphor
shoe flower
shoo-fly plant
shrub-vinca
Siamese cassia
Siamese rough bush
siamweed
sicklepod
sigesbeckia
silk-cottontree
silky wormwood
silver cock’s comb
simal
sisal
sisal hemp
skunk vine
slender dwarf morning-glory
slow match tree
small fennel
small-leaved rubber plant
smartweed
smooth chastetree
smooth loofah
smooth senna
snow bush
soap pod
soapberry
soapnut
soft elephant’s-foot
soft hemp
soja bean
soldier-weed
sorrel
sorrowless tree
sour orange
southernblue gum
soy bean
soya bean
Spanish cane
Spanish cherry
speedwell
spiderflower
spiderwisp
spiny amaranthus
spiny bamboo
spiny bitter-cucumber
spiny bittergourd
spiny pigweed
sponge gourd
sponge-tree
spreading hogweed
star flower tree
star gooseberry
star ipomoea
starleaf
stinging nettle
stink vine
stinkwort
stinky opal berry
strong-scented pigweed
sugar apple
suntwood
superb lily
surfacea
swallow-wart
swamp daisy
swamp morning-glory
sweet acacia
sweet flag
sweetleaf
sweet-scented broom
sweetsop
switch cane
sword bean
tabasco
tamarind
tamilnadia
Tanner’s cassia
Tanner’s tea
taro
tarragon
Tasmanian blue gum
tatea
taung-sun
teak
tellicherry bark
thorn apple
thorny amaranthus
threelobe false mallow
ti plant
tick clover
tick trefoil
tiger’s claw
tinnevelly senna
touch-me-not
tree cotton
tree crinum
tropical almond
tropical bleeding heart
tropical fanleaf
tropical laurel
tropical rose mallow
tropical white morning-glory
tropical whiteweed
true ginger
true hemp
true sandalwood
trumpet flower
trumpet-bush
tubeflower
tumeric
tummy wood
turkey bush
turmeric
turnsole
turpeth root
umbrella tree
upas tree
varnishtree
vegetable humming-bird
vegetable sponge
velvet bean
velvet leaf
vinca
wadalee-gum tree
Wallich milk parsely
water cress
water-filter nut
waterspinach
wax gourd
weak horsetail
weeping laurel
West Indian almond
West Indian blackthorn
West Indian pea tree
Westland’s rhododendron
white butterfly bush
white cedar
white eclipta
white gourd
white heads
white leadwort
white man’s foot
white mustard
white pavetta
white sandalwood
white silk-cottontree
white-barked acacia
wild balsam apple
wild cabbage
wild carrot
wild cassia
wild celery
wild cock’s comb
wild eggplant
wild ginger
wild indigo
wild jujube
wild mango
wild mint
wild oil nut
wild okra
wild portulaca
wild saffron
wild sage
wild sarsaparilla
wild snake gourd
wild tamarind
wild water-lemon
wildhops
willow
wine palm
winter cherry
winterberry
wodier
woman’s tongue
wonder-tree
wood apple
woodfordia
woolly dyeing rosebay
woolly foxglove
wormseed
yellow champak
yellow crown-head
yellow jasmine
yellow oleander
yellow prickly poppy
yellow snake tree
yellow snakeroot
yellow teak
yellow trumpet-bush
yellow-bells
yellow-elder
yellowtop
yerba de caballo
yerba de tago
yew
ylang-ylang
zedoary
-cat
-insect
-rabid dog
-snake
-stones
-ears
-gums
-in urine
-menstrual
-nosebleeds
-abnormal
-binding
-cleaning
-clotting
-irregulation
-pressure
-purification
-breast
-genital
-broken/fractured
-improvements
-complaints
-disease
-loose bowel
-movements
-sluggish
-drooping
-problems
-clear passages
-mouth
-skin
-stomach
-throat
-bladder
-urinary tract
-problems
-varicose
-male-related
-buzzing
-disease
-health
-infection
-wash
-asthma-related
-childbirth-related
-from chest colds/infections
-dengue hemorrhagic fever
-typhoid fever
-urinary disease
-control
-elimination
-disease
-function
-stones
-growth and health
-loss
-migraines
-disease
-functions
-irregularities
-body
-diminish
-stroke
-ear
-fungus
-gums
-intestinal
-post childbirth
-skin
-abdomen
-appendix
-bladder
-breast
-eye
-gum
-internal
-intestines
-joint
-liver
-oral
-spleen
-testes
-amoebae
-function
-
-disease
-stones
-induction
-disease
-enlargement (hepalomegaly)
-health
-male
-female
-spermatorrhea
-disorders
-excessive
-menorrhagia
-residual discharge
-stimulation of,
-blisters
-dry
-sores
-knots
-spasms/twitches
-abdominal
-ague
-back
-bladder
-body
-bone
-bowel
-breast
-chest
-eye
-flatulence
-gastric
-groin
-heart
-intestinal
-joint
-menstrual
-muscle
-stomach
-tongue
-urinary
-uterus
-facial
-partial
-stroke-induced
-alcohol
-animal
-arsenic
-centipede
-food/medicines
-opium
-rat
-scorpion
-snake
-spiders
-stomach
-control
-excessive
-increase
-impotence
-lack of semen
-discoloration
-from blood impurities
-fungal infection
-pimples
-cold
-inflamed sores
-leprous
-lesions
-remove maggots from,
-warts
-eyes
-gums
-joints
-muscles
-diseases
-enlargement
-muscle
-neck
-brain
-bloat
-distention
-function
-in children
-problems
-blood
-gall bladder
-heart
-kidney
-stomach
-teeth
-abdominal
-ankle
-joint
-knee
-penis
-windpipe
-rheumatism caused by
-blisters
-cracked
-sores
-brain
-heart
-liver
-canker sores
-difficulty in passing urine
-excessive
-infection
-loose stool
-retention
-too little urine
-discharge
-infection
-leimyomas
-joint inflammation from
-sores
-vaginal discharge due to,
-of blood
-during menstruation
-guinea worm
-intestinal worms
-threadworms, roundworms